psych2 Flashcards
What’s selective vs. divided attention?
Selective attention refers to the process by which we focus on one aspect in our environment while ignoring others.
Divided attention is multitasking.
What is cocktail party effect?
The cocktail party effect is a specific instance in which we may suddenly shift our attention to something that was previously ignored because of some cue that draws our attention
What is controlled versus. automatic processing?
Controlled processing requires attention (studying), while automatic processing does not (brushing teeth).
What does Information processing theory include?
1) thinking- includes perception of stimuli, encoding stimuli and storage of info.
2) analysis of stimuli - part of decision making, stimuli are altered and analyzed by brain.
3) Situational modification: stored decision making and problem solving experiences from past can be extrapolated t solve new problems.
4) Obstacle evaluation: individual’s skill level in problem solving does not depend solely on cognitive development level but largely on nature and context of problem/ obstacle.
Who is Jean Piaget ?
Father of developmental psychology and major contributor to cognitive theory.
What are schemas? what did JP believe about them?
Piaget believes schemas were an important part of how we learn. Schemas are patterns of thought that we use to create categories of information or behavior and to understand the relationship that exists among those categories.
What are real life examples of schemas?
1) outline plan to do well at school.
2) Schema of what fits in description of dog.
What are Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
1) sensorimotor (0-2 years old)- coordination of senses with motor response.
2) pre operational (2-7)- symbolic thinking + use of proper syntax and grammar. Strong intuition and imagination.
3) concrete operational (7-11years old) - concepts attached ton concrete situations. Understand time, space an quantity.
4) formal operational (+11) theoretical, counterfactual and hypothetical thinking. Strategy and planning become possible.
What are age related physical changes in the brain?
Brain shrinks in size and neural plasticity decreases.
What is neural plasticity?
Brain’s ability to change structure and function to accommodate new memories, make new connections and create new motor skills.
What kind of memory do you lose as you age?
working memory, rote memory but not semantic memory.
What structure of the brain loses neurons t the fastest rate?
Frontal lobe and corpus callossum lose neurons at the fastest rate. Cerebellum loses 25% of neurons.
What are barriers to effective Problem solving?
1) mental set= predetermined mental framework for approaching a problem’ relying on approaches and solutions that have worked in the past.
2) Functional Fixedness: example of a mental set in which, when solving a problem, we can only visualize using an object or tool in the ways we have seen it used previously.
Explain Duncker’s candle problem and provide a conceptual definition for functional fixedness. Provide two additional real-life examples of functional fixedness.
Duncker’s candle problem is a task that is used to determine how certain types of cognitive bias might influence one’s ability to solve a problem. During this task, individuals are asked to fix a burning candle to a corkboard without dripping wax onto a table.
he individuals are provided (or are shown a picture of) a book of matches, a box of thumbtacks, and a candle. The correct solution is to empty the box of thumbtacks, secure the box to the wall using the thumbtacks, place the candle in the box, and to light the candle. Many people struggle in solving this task because they cannot conceive of using the box of thumbtacks for anything other than pinning something to a cork board.
What’s cognitive bias?(3)
An error in thinking that leads to inaccuracy, illogical thought, a lack of objectivity, a failure to consider all available options or consequences, a prejudice toward one approach or outcome.
What are approaches to PS? (3)
1) Trial and Error: try, test, multiple and discover what works and what doesn’t- this is only effective when there are relatively few available options.
2) Algorithms: Mathematical formulat or step by step, flowchart like approach.
3) Heuristics: “Rules of Thumb”- heuristics can be helpful in problem solving, but can also cause functional fixedness and a lack of cognitive flexibility.
4) intuition: one’s gut feeling - unconsciously applying heuristic or mental set.
5) deductive reasoning: conclusions ar gebased on assumed premises aka TOP DOWN processing.
6) inductive reasoning: BOTTOM UP processing.
In approaches to PS; there’s three types of heuristics, what are they?
1) representative heuristics: reliance on prototypes or stereotypes as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment.
2) availability heuristic: favoring the most easily recalled or imagined solution as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment.
3) Anchoring and adjustment heuristic: giving higher priority o the very first piece of information received and/or framing subsequent information around it.
Label the following as examples of inductive or deductive reasoning. Justify your answers. a) Some people believe dogs are more intelligent than cats. My dog can play fetch, but my cat cannot. Therefore, dogs are smarter than cats.
b) The veterinarian visited all of the horses in the county last week. All of the horses the veterinarian visited were brown. Therefore, all of the horses in the county are brown.
a) inductive
b) deductive
what’s confirmation bias?
the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories.
what’s overconfidence?
the quality of being too confident; excessive confidence.
what’s belief perseverance?
People tend to hold on to their beliefs even when it appears that they shouldn’t. Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to one’s initial belief even after receiving new information that contradicts or dis- confirms the basis of that belief.
wha’t base rate fallacy?
also called base rate neglect or base rate bias, is a formal fallacy. If presented with related base rate information (i.e. generic, general information) and specific information (information only pertaining to a certain case), the mind tends to ignore the former and focus on the latter.
1) Suppose it is discovered that the kidney has a hormone function that was previously unknown and is currently the subject of further investigation. A researcher exhibiting functional fixedness is likely to favor which new kidney function? A) Secretion of gonadotropins B) Secretion of oxytocin C) Regulation of aldosterone levels D) Regulation of triiodothyronine levels
C- The functional fixedness bias suggests that a person has a hard time visualizing a tool or object as having a use or application different from the one with which they are accustomed. Applied to kidney function, researchers would be biased toward a new kidney function that is closely related to what they normally expect the kidney to do.
what is spreading activation?
remembering words that are associated to a lit of words previously seen but not there. method for searching associative networks neural networks or semantic networks.
what’s proactive interference?
previously stored memories
What is Gardner’s theory of intelligence? what are the attributes?
Argues there’s 8 types of intelligence + Against the Western idea that there’s two intelligence (the last two).
1) Visual-Spatial
2) Bodily-Kinesthetic
3) Musical
4) Interpersonal
5) Intrapersonal
6) Naturalistic (added by Gardner later, some texts report only seven intelligences)
7) Linguistic
8) Logical-Mathematical
What is Galton’s argument on intelligence?
argues that individual heritage characteristics contributed to intelligence as much s any gene contributed to physical traits.
Nature NOT Nurture
What is eugenics?
any belief or meths or practice designed to improve the genetic makeup of the human race, usually by preventing the birth, reproduction rate or survival of individuals deemed to have less desirable genes” (aka black). UNETHICAL
What is Separman’s general intelligence concept?
g factor- argus that general intelligence was the bedrock intellect from which all other forms of intelligence are developed.
What is the Binet Simon intelligence scale? what is the equivalent today?
Binet and Simon were the first to develop an intelligence scale and the concept of mental age vs. chronological age.
His purpose was to identify children who needed extra educational help or attention in school.
Today: use the Stanford-Binet IQ test
What trend does intelligence follow?
Normal distribution/ Gaussian distribution.
How is IQ measured?
IQ= (mental age/ chronological age) 100
What are IQ correlations?
Intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. IQ is positively correlated with: - high level of parental expectations -higher socioeconomic status -early educational intervention -adequate nutrition
What brain region is alertness with?
reticular formation of brain stimulates prefrontal cortex to maintain alertness.
What are the four difference waves and what is each associated with? What is the order of decreasing wave frequency ?
Alpha= very relaxed, meditating.
Beta= awake and alert
Theta= Light sleep
Delta= Deep sleep
Beta > alpha> theta> delta
what is important about delta waves?
On EEG it looks like alpha waves because of REM sleep.
What happens when you lose function of reticule formation?
Coma
What is a regular state of rest and reduced consciousness called?
circadian rhythm
Are cortisol levels higher when a person is awake or asleep?
awake and alert
What are the four stages of sleep?
1) Stage one= Falling asleep, EEG is mix of alpha and theta waves.
2) Stage two= Deeper sleep, EEG is theta waves mixed with sleep spindles and K complexes.
3) Transitional, EEG is mostly theta waves but delta waves beginto appear.
4) Deep sleep, often called “delta sleep” because the EEG contains slow delta waves.
How is Rapid Eye movement (REM) characterized?
Most vivid dreams are thought to occur during REM sleep.
What is paradoxical sleep?
phrase used to describe ironic fact that during REM sleep, alertness, heart rate, breathing and EEG patterns are nearly that of wakefulness and yet one’s muscles are paralyzed.
What are physiological effects of chronic sleep deprivation?
Positively correlated with decreased cognitive functioning, depression and multiple chronic diseases, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, obesity and diabetes.
What are dyssomnias?
Difficulty falling asleep (insomnia), staying asleep (sleep apnea) or avoiding sleep (narcolepsy).
What is Narcolepsy?
Chronic neurological disorder caused by autoimmune attack of the neurons that release hypocretin - a hormone that normally regulates sleep- wake cycles.
What is cataplexy?
Sudden, transient periods of muscle weakness or paralysis during which the patient remains fully conscious and aware..
What are parasomnias?
abnormal movements, behavior, perceptions, or emotions during sleep.
Suppose a patient is taking an experimental steroid-derived drug suspected to be a steroid antagonist. The patient complains of difficulty sleeping at night and difficulty staying awake during the day. A medical student suggests the drug may be interfering with the normal action of melatonin. Is the student’s suggestion a plausible explanation for these observations? Why or why not?
Plausible: the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of cortisol secretion from the adrenal glands and melatonin secretion from the pineal gland. Drugs with steroidal activity might affect the timing of the release of each of these hormones that could interfere with sleep.
2) A recent study reported that compared to the children of upper class families, children from families of government-defined low socioeconomic status are twice as likely to report night terrors. This suggests that the children of:
A) wealthy parents are more likely to experience nighttime elevations in blood pressure.
B) wealthy parents are less likely to experience nighttime elevations in blood pressure.
C) poor parents are more likely to have constricted pupils when they awake from a night terror.
D) poor parents are less likely to have dilated pupils when they awake from a night terror.
Night terrors are associated with elevated blood pressure, dilated pupils- B
What is Freud’s psychoanalytic theory on dreams?
Dreams are expressions of unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. Dreams can serve as a virtual for of wish fulfillment.
What is Hall’s cognitive theory’s on dreams?
Dreams are a conceptualizations of our experiences; they are visualizations of our thoughts and perceptions about five concepts: our self, others, the world around us, morals, conflict.
How is Information processing theory related to dreams?
Memories and information accumulated during the dare as consolidated during sleep. Dreaming is the cerebral cortex is associating images or meaning with this consolidations process.
How is process solving theory related to dreams?
Dreams are a way for the mind to solve problems encountered while awake. Some proponents suggest the unconscious dreaming mind is better suited or more capable of solving problems than the awake mind- unrestricted by reality or more sensitive to subtle clues.
How is activation synthesis theory related to dreams?
The limbic system is randomly active during sleep, mimicking incoming stimuli. Dreams are an attempt by the cerebral cortex to synthesize and interpret this activity in a logical way.
What is hypnosis?
A trance like state under which a person becomes highly suggestible. It is induced by a therapist and can serve to recall repressed memories, control pain or stop undesirable behavior (weight loss, addictions).
What is meditation?
An intentionally altered state of consciousness intended to improve focus or overall well being. Meditation has beens showed to be associated with a relaxed, slower wave state of arousal reproducible on an EEG.
What are the five drug types?
1) Depressants: alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines –> agonize GABA neurotransmission
2) stimulants: amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy –> agonists of the monoamine neurotransmitters (like dopamine)
3) hallucinogens: LSD, peyote, mushrooms, … –> euphoria, high levels of dopamine ?
4) Pain Killers: opiates, opioids –> pronounced analgesic properties and act on the opioid system in the brain.
5) MJ: various effects.
Alcohol is known to increase the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain. If GABA binds a membrane receptor that allows Cl- ions to flow through the axon membrane into the nerve cell, what is the likely effect of alcohol on: a) the voltage difference across the axon membrane? Will it be more negative compared to resting potential or more positive? and b) the magnitude of the stimulus required to initiate an action potential? Will the neuron require a stronger stimulus to reach threshold potential, or will it reach threshold under a weaker stimulus?
As Cl- ions moved into the cell, one would expect the axonal membrane to become hyperpolarized (or more negative relative to resting potential). This would create a situation in which a depolarizing stimulus would have to be larger in magnitude to move the cell membrane towards the threshold potential.
How dies drug addition stimulate reward pathway?
drug addition stimulates dopamine based reward pathway in limbic system of brain.
3) The LD50 value is the amount of a drug in milligrams that results in the death of 50% of lab animals administered that dosage. Large doses of a benzodiazepine, a barbiturate, and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), a drug used to treat narcolepsy, were administered to rats. If GHB has the lowest LD50 of the three drugs, and the benzodiazepine used has the highest LD50:
A) GHB is safer than the barbiturate or the benzodiazepine at supra-therapeutic doses.
B) GHB is more dangerous than the barbiturate or the benzodiazepine at supra-therapeutic doses.
C) Benzodiazepine is more dangerous than the barbiturate or GHB at supra-therapeutic doses.
D) Benzodiazepine is more dangerous than GHB at supra-therapeutic doses, but more information is
necessary to rank the relative safety of the barbiturate.
B
