Psych Unit 3/4 Flashcards
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
bottom-up processing
analysis that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
inattentional blindness
failing to notice a fully-visible, but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task, event, or object
change blindness
a phenomenon of visual perception that occurs when a stimulus undergoes a change without this being noticed by its observer
absolute vs difference threshold
Absolute Threshold- the minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect
Difference Threshold- the degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
priming
a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulusthe activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
weber’s law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by constant percentage (rather than a constant amount)
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
prospagnosia
face blindness
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light (blue, green, red, etc.)
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which as we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude
steps in vision
- Light waves enter the cornea
- Pass through the pupil
- Pass through the lens
- Projected onto the retina
- Rods and cones transduce light waves into neural impulses
- Neural impulses are sent to the optic nerve
- The optic nerve carries messages from each eye to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe
rods vs. cones
retinal receptors:
rods –> detect black, white, and gray; peripheral and twilight vision, or when cones don’t response
cones –> near the center of the retina, function in well-lit conditions, fine detail, color sensations
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to the specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle or movement
parallel processing
the ability to take in multiple different forms of information at the same time - especially important in vision (seeing a bus coming towards you, you see its color, shape, depth, and motion all at once)
young-helmholtz trichromatic theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color (red, blue, green)
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes in three systems (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision - helps explain color blindness
pitch
a tone’s experienced highness or lowness - determined by the wavelength of sound
outer ear
the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea with sensory receptor hair cells (hearing), and semicircular canals controlling vestibular sense (balance)
place theory
the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
frequency theory
the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
gate-control theory
the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks or allows pain signals to pass on to the brain
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
gestalt
tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
binocular cues
depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes
retinal disparity
a binocular cue that compares images from the retinas in each eye and computing the distance depth can be perceived
monocular cues
depth cues available to either eye such as interposition (one object in front of another) and linear perspective (parallel lines appear to converge in the distance)
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even illumination and retinal images change
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field (using visual distortion goggles)
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another - expectations have a big effect on how we ‘see’ the world
synesthesia
a perceptual phenomenon when stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences in a second pathway (hearing music, but seeing colors)
learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
habituation
a decrease in response to a stimulus after being repeatedly exposed to it
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together.
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
classical conditioning
a type of learning that happens unconsciously when an automatic conditioned response is paired with a specific stimulus (Pavlov)
neutral stimulus (NS)
environmental factor that doesn’t elicit a conditioned response (CR) until it is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US) (bell in Pavlov experiment)
unconditioned response (UR)
the unlearned, naturally occurring reaction to unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a reaction (like food)
conditioned response (CR)
the learned reaction to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned reaction
acquisition
the “learned” behavior or response
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus (NS), creating a second (often weaker) CS.
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response (CR); when a response is no longer reinforced
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response (CR)
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) to elicit responses
stimulus discrimination
the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (US) - (like a bell vs. a whistle)
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punisher
shaping
reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (hunger, thirst, touch)
reinforcement schedule
the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval
continuous vs. partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs vs. reinforcing only part of the time (results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction than continuous)
positive punishment
adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior
negative punishment
taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior
overjustification effect
the phenomenon where we lose intrinsic motivation to complete an activity that we used to enjoy for itself after a reward, such as a prize or money, is given to us for completing the activity
biofeedback
a technique that trains people to improve their health by controlling certain bodily processes that normally happen involuntarily, such as heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and skin temperature.
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it LATER
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. (For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it)
token economy
type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards
aversion therapy
a behavioral therapy in which an undesirable behavior is paired with an aversive stimulus to reduce the frequency of the behavior
superstitious behavior
a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
problem-focused coping
alleviating stress by taking direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction
observational learning
learning by observing others; also called social learning
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s actions may enable imitation and empath
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
Albert Bandura
researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment
John Garcia
Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
B.F. Skinner
he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.
Edward Thorndike
behaviorist; developed the Law of Effect principle (behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while those followed by unfavorable-become less likely)
John Watson
behaviorist; famous for Little Albert study in which a baby was taught to fear a white rat
