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Financial Accounting 12 Chapter 1 Discussion Q's > Psych Exam 2 (5,7,8) > Flashcards

Psych Exam 2 (5,7,8) Flashcards

Memorization

1
Q

What is sensation?

A

Sensation is the process of detecting environmental stimuli using sensory systems.

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2
Q

How does perception differ from sensation?

A

Perception is the brain’s ability to interpret and make sense of sensory input, allowing us to recognize and identify stimuli.

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3
Q

What are the main sensory systems and their stimuli?

A

Olfactory (smell): airborne chemicals
Gustatory (taste): chemicals in food
Somatosensory (touch): pressure, heat, pain
Auditory (hearing): sound waves
Visual (sight): light

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4
Q

What is sensory transduction?

A

Sensory transduction is the process of converting environmental stimuli into neural activity.

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5
Q

What are sensory receptor cells?

A

Sensory receptor cells detect specific forms of stimuli and convert them into neural signals that the brain can process.

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6
Q

What are absolute thresholds?

A

The minimum stimulus intensity required for detection.

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6
Q

What are difference thresholds?

A

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

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7
Q

What is signal detection theory?

A

Signal detection theory examines how we discern signals amidst noise, accounting for both the intensity of the stimulus and the individual’s response criteria.

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8
Q

What is bottom-up processing?

A

Builds perception from sensory input.

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8
Q

What is sensory adaptation?

A

Sensory adaptation occurs when sensitivity to a constant stimulus decreases over time, such as adapting to the feel of clothing.

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9
Q

What is top-down processing?

A

Uses prior knowledge to interpret sensory information.

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9
Q

What is a perceptual set?

A

Perceptual set is a predisposition to perceive stimuli in a particular way, influenced by experience or expectations.

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10
Q

How does the tactile (or somatosensory) system work?

A

The tactile system involves skin receptors detecting pressure, temperature, and pain. Specific receptors include Meissner’s corpuscles (sensitive touch), Merkel’s discs (light pressure), Ruffini’s end-organs (heavy pressure), and Pacinian corpuscles (vibrations).

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11
Q

What are Taste buds?

A

They are clusters of sensory receptor cells that convert
chemical signals from food into neural impulses that travel to
the brain

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11
Q

What are odourants?

A

They are airborne chemicals that are detected as odours

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12
Q

What are Olfactory receptor neurons?

A

They are sensory receptor cells that convert chemical signals from odourants into neural impulses that travel to the brain

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13
Q

What is Papillae?

A

They are bumps on the tongue that contain clumps of taste
buds

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14
Q

What are the 5 taste receptors on the tongue?

A
  1. Sweet
  2. Sour
  3. Bitter
  4. Salt
  5. Umami – the taste of monosodium
    glutamate (MSG)
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14
Q

What is Anosmia

A

The inability to detect odours

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15
Q

What is Ageusia?

A

The inability to taste, a rare disorder

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16
Q

What is Hyposmia?

A

The reduced ability to smell

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17
Q

What is Reflex epilepsy?

A

A seizure occurs only after exposure to a specific odour

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17
Q

Where are free nerve endings located and their function?

A

They are located near the surface of the skin, and they detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

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18
Q

What are Migraine headaches

A

They are specific odours that can trigger migraines

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19
Q

Where are Merkel’s discs located and their function?

A

They are located near the surface of the skin, and they transduce information about light to moderate pressure against the skin

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19
Q

Where are Meissner’s corpuscles located and their function?

A

They are located in fingertips, lips, and palms (hairless skin areas), and they transduce information about sensitive touch

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20
Q

Where are Ruffini’s end-organs located and their function?

A

They are located deep in the skin, and they register heavy pressure and movement of the joints

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21
Q

What is the fast pathway of pain

A

It is sharp, localized pain that travels along myelinated neurons to the brain that is felt quicker.

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21
Q

Where are Pacinian corpuscles located and their function?

A

They are located deep in the skin, and they respond to vibrations and heavy pressure.

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22
Q

What is the slow pathway of pain?

A

It is inputs that communicate with brain regions involved in processing emotions; pain we perceive via the slow pathway is more often burning pain than sharp pain

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23
Q

What is the gate control theory of pain?

A

Patterns of neural activity that prevents messages from reaching parts of the brain where they are perceived as pain.

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24
Q

What is familial dysautonomia?

A

It is a rare genetic condition associated with an inability to detect pain or temperature and produce tears.

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25
Q

What are Phantom limb sensations?

A

They are tactile hallucinations of touch, pressure, vibration, and pain in the body part that no longer exists.

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26
Q

What are sound waves?

A

They are vibrations of the air in the frequency of hearing.

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26
Q

What is Amplitude?

A

The magnitude (height of a wave)

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27
Q

What is Frequency?

A

the number of cycles per second in a wave

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28
Q

What is the Frequency Theory?

A

Different sound frequencies are converted into
different rates of action potentials, and high-frequency sounds produce a more rapid firing than low-frequency sounds

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29
Q

What is the Place Theory?

A

Differences in sound frequency activate different
regions of the basilar membrane, and the brain equates the place activity occurred on the basilar membrane with a particular frequency

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30
Q

What is the cocktail party effect?

A

The brain picks up on relevant sounds, even in a noisy environment

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31
Q

What are the ways that someone can become deaf?

A

Can be genetic, caused by infection, physical trauma
(headphone use), exposure to toxins, high doses of common
medications such as Aspirin

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32
Q

What is tinnitus and how does it occur?

A

It is ringing in the ear and it occurs due to abnormalities in the ear.

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33
Q

What does the iris do?

A

It adjusts pupil size to control the amount of light allowed in

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34
Q

What are Photoreceptors?

A

sensory receptor cells for vision called rods and cones that are located in the retina

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35
Q

What is the function of Rods?

A

They are used to detect light and often used for periphery and night vision

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36
Q

What is the function of Cones?

A

They are used for central and colour vision.

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37
Q

What is a Hue?

A

The experience of colour based on the wavelength of light; green, blue, red, and other colours

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38
Q

What is Saturation?

A

The purity of color; how bright or vivid it is

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39
Q

What is brightness?

A

How much light is reflected from the object

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40
Q

What is Trichromatic Theory?

A

There are three different sensors for colour and each type responds to a different range of wavelengths of light

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41
Q

What is Opponent process theory?

A

Colour pairs work to inhibit one another in the perception of colour

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42
Q

What is Visual agnosia?

A

Damage to the “what” pathway; cannot visually recognize
objects

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43
Q

What is Prosopagnosia?

A

A form of visual agnosia in which people cannot recognize faces

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44
Q

What is Hemi-neglect?

A

Damage to the “where” pathway; people ignore one side of their
visual field

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45
Q

What are binocular cues?

A

Cues from both eyes

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46
Q

What is Retinal disparity?

A

Different images of objects are cast on the retinas of each eye

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47
Q

What is Convergence?

A

The tendency of the eyes to move toward each other as we focus on objects up close

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48
Q

What is perceptual constancy?

A

Our top-down tendency to view objects
as unchanging, despite shifts in the environmental stimuli we
receive

49
Q

What is size constancy?

A

We perceive objects as the same size, regardless of the distance from which it is viewed

50
Q

What is Shape constancy?

A

We see an object as the same shape, no matter from what angle it is viewed

51
Q

What is Strabismus?

A

Lack of coordinated movement of both eyes; affects about 2%−4% of the population

52
Q

What is Amblyopia?

A

A loss of visual abilities in a weaker eye; abnormal development of the brain’s visual cortex due to a failure to receive coordinated visual stimulation from both eyes by the age of six

53
Q

What is Braille?

A

A form of reading skill used by individuals suffering
from visual impairments

54
Q

What is Kinesthetic?

A

Receptor cells in your muscles tell the brain when we are moving and where our body parts are in space

55
Q

What Is Vestibular?

A

Located in the semicircular canals of our
inner ears; the movement of fluid tells us if we are
standing up or swaying from side to side

56
Q

What is learning?

A

It is lasting change caused by experience; it has to be inferred from behaviour and cannot be directly observed

57
Q

What is associative learning?

A

It is a change as a result of experience where two or more stimuli become linked; accounts for most learning

58
Q

What is Non-associative learning?

A

It is learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli; learning occurs following repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event

59
Q

What is Habituation

A

The weakening of response to a stimulus after repeated presentation

60
Q

What is Dishabitution

A

Recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habitutation

61
Q

What is Sensitization?

A

A strong stimulus that results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli

62
Q

What is conditioning

A

The association of events in the environment

63
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

A form of associative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response

63
Q

What is Unconditioned stimulus?

A

A stimulus that on its own elicits a response (eg., food)

64
Q

What is a Unconditioned response

A

A physical response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus; it does not need to be learned(eg., salivation)

64
Q

What is Conditioned stimulus?

A

A neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired (i.e., bell)

65
Q

What is a conditioned response?

A

A physical response elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it has acquired through experience ad is usually the same as the unconditioned response (i.e., salivation)

66
Q

What is Acquisition?

A

The initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship

66
Q

What does extinction mean?

A

The reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone

67
Q

What is Spontaneous recovery?

A

The re-emergence of a conditioned response some time after extinction has occured

67
Q

What is stimulus generalization?

A

What occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response

68
Q

What is stimulus discrimination?

A

What occurs when an organism learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus

69
Q

What is higher-order conditioning?

A

What occurs when a previously-conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning

69
Q

What is Phobia?

A

It is a persistent, irrational, or obsessive fear of a specific object or situation that may arise as a result of a fear conditioning.

70
Q

What is Systematic desensitization?

A

A process used to condition the extinction of phobias through a gradual exposure to the feared object or situation

71
Q

What is conditioned taste aversion?

A

A form of classical conditioned where a previously neutral stimulus (odour or taste) elicits an aversive reaction after it is paired with illness (e.g. first alcohol you ever got really drunk with)

71
Q

What is operant conditioning

A

A form of associative learning where behaviour is modified depending on its consequence; also called instrumental conditioning

71
Q

What is Law of effect

A

Behaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again.

72
Q

What is Behaviourism?

A

The systematic study and manipulation of observable behaviour

72
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

An experience that produces an increase in a certain behaviour

72
Q

What is positive reinforcement

A

Presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur

73
Q

What is negative reinforcement

A

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur

74
Q

What is Punishment

A

An experience that produces a decrease in a certain behaviour

74
Q

What is positive punishment

A

Presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated

75
Q

What is negative punishment?

A

removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated

76
Q

What are primary reinforcers?

A

A stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsically rewarding; biological

77
Q

What are secondary reinforcers?

A

A neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer; learned

78
Q

What is a primary punisher?

A

A stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism

79
Q

What is a Secondary punisher?

A

A stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher?

80
Q

What is continuous reinforcement?

A

Behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs

81
Q

What is partial reinforcement?

A

Behaviour is only followed by reinforcement some of the time

82
Q

What is shaping?

A

Introducing new behaviour by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behaviour until the complete behavioural sequence emerges

83
Q

What is Behaviour modification?

A

A systematic approach to change behaviour using principles of operant conditioning

84
Q

What is Observational/social learning?

A

Occurs without overt training in response to watching the behaviour of others; called models

85
Q

What is Modelling?

A

Occurs when an observer learns from the behaviour of another

86
Q

What is Vicarious learning?

A

Occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another’s actions and then chooses to duplicate the behaviour or refrain from doing so

87
Q

What are Mirror neurons?

A

Neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform the same action

87
Q

What is Implicit learning?

A

Refers to the acquisition of information without awareness

88
Q

What is Spatial navigation learning?

A

Involves formal associations among stimuli relevant to navigating in space

88
Q

What is Latent learning?

A

A form of learning that is not expressed until there is a reward or incentive

89
Q

What is Insight learning?

A

A sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts

90
Q

What is Dyslexia?

A

Reading Disorder

91
Q

What is Dyscalculia?

A

Mathematics disorder

92
Q

What is Dysgraphia?

A

Disorder of written expression

92
Q

What are the three core activities involved in the process of memory?

A

core activities involved in the process of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval.

93
Q

What is the purpose of encoding in memory?

A

encoding is the process of absorbing information into memory for future storage and retrieval.

93
Q

difference between automatic processing and effortful processing in memory encoding.

A

automatic processing happens without conscious effort, while effortful processing involves active engagement to memorize information.

94
Q

How does the Parallel Distributed-Processing Model describe memory function?

A

it involves a network of connections where information is represented as activation patterns across neural networks.

95
Q

3 Types of Learning

A
  1. Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning
  2. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
  3. Observational (Social) Leaning
95
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus

A

Stimulus that elicits a particular response (reflexive, involuntary reactions) without the necessity of learning.

96
Q

Unconditioned Response

A

Involuntary, automatic response that occurs to a stimulus without the necessity of learning

97
Q

Conditioned Stimulus

A

Stimulus that does not elicit a particular response initially but comes to do so as a result of becoming associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

98
Q

Conditioned Response

A

Response that comes to be made to the conditioned stimulus as a result of classical conditioning.

99
Q

Aquisition

A

Conditioned Stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, Conditioned stimulus begins to elicit the Conditioned response

100
Q

Extinction

A

Unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus, conditioned response eventually disappears.

101
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

Studied operant conditioning with rats. Devised Skinner’s Box.

101
Q

5 Major Conditioning Processes

A

1.Aquisition
2.Extinction
3.Spontaneous Recovery
4.Generalization
5.Discrimination

101
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

If the conditioned stimulus is presented again to the subject after a period of rest, the conditioned response reappears.

101
Q

Discrimination

A

Responding occurs in the presence of one stimulus, but not in the presence of another.

102
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

The process whereby an organism learns to associate a response and its consequences and thus to repeat acts followed by rewards and avoid acts followed by punishment. occurs across species.

102
Q

Generalization

A

The tendency to respond to stimuli resembling the conditioned stimulus.

103
Q

Reinforcers

A

Stimuli that increase the probability of behavior.

104
Q

Primary Reinforcers

A

Events that are innately reinforcing (food, water, things with biological significance)

105
Q

Secondary Reinforcers

A

Require learning. (Money, Praise etc.)

106
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Presentation of a desirable stimulus increases the probability of behavior.

107
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

Nothing to do with punishment. Removal of an aversive stimulus increases the probability of behaviour.

108
Q

Punishers

A

Stimuli that decrease the probablility of behavior.

109
Q

Positive Punishment

A

Presentation of an aversive stimulus decreases the probability of behaviour.

110
Q

Negative Punishment

A

Removal of a desirable stimulus decreases the probabliltiy of behavior.

110
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling.

111
Q

Social Learning

A

Learning by observing others.

Financial Accounting 12 Chapter 1 Discussion Q's (24 decks)

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