Psych Exam #1/ Lecture #4 Chp 4 (Actions & Choices)

Question 1

Self-regulation

Answer 1

Any act of self-control, or any situation in which behavior is purposefully directed towards a goal

Question 2

Why is self-regulation necessary?

Answer 2

• Health goals-weightloss, fitness, overcoming addictions
  * Achievement goals-academic and career success
  * Financial goals-debt vs savings
  * Relationship goals-resisting temptations of others, as well as ability to engage in pro-relationship action in the face of anger

Question 3

What things influence self-regulation?

Answer 3

Automatic processes and conscious decisions

Question 4

Steps to Achieve a Goal

Answer 4

• 1: Must identify clear standard or goal
• 2: Must monitor one’s performance relevant to standard or goal
• 3: Must be able to change behavior to pursue standard or goal

Question 5

Goal selection

Answer 5

Automatic: goal selection and pursuit often occurs through the automatic system, outside of conscious awareness

Question 6

Zeigarnik effect

Answer 6

incomplete goals will automatically come to mind -unbidden reminders of undone tasks

Question 7

How else can goals be activated or reminded?

Answer 7

• Goals can also be activated by particular situations or by people associated with the goal –or any strongly associated reminder

Question 8

Goal framing

Answer 8

How we think about the goal

Question 9

Action identification

Answer 9

how do we represent the task at hand?

Question 10

How can a goal or behavior be represented?

Answer 10

• Any behavior or goal may be represented at a high or a low level
  * Low level: “I’m laying bricks”
  * High level: “I’m building a cathedral”

Question 11

High level goal framing

Answer 11

• High levels can be more motivating and lead to greater engagement if you are already good at the task or it is simple (e.g., Zappos “delivering happiness”)
• an be terrifying and lead to withdrawing from the goal (or freezing) if you are not confident/competent

Question 12

Goal preparation

Answer 12

• getting ready

* Any behaviors performed to prepare for goal pursuit

Question 13

What things can we do for goal preparation?

Answer 13

Information gathering, Situational tuning, Mental rehearsal

Question 14

Information gathering

Answer 14

(e.g., learning about quitting smoking)

Question 15

Situational tuning

Answer 15

e.g., throwing out all of your ashtrays), includes social tuning and altering relationships. When certain goals are primed we will draw closer to others who are instrumental in achieving those goals, and draw away from those who are not

Question 16

Mental rehearsal

Answer 16

Imagining success;
Research has shown that mentally rehearsing achieving the goal is ONLY helpful when goal pursuit is simple/close at hand
* BUT mental rehearsal of pursuing the goal (especially overcoming anticipated obstacles) is MORE helpful, especially when goal pursuit is difficult or must be maintained over a long time period

Question 17

Difference between difficulty of goal monitoring and changing behavior?

Answer 17

• Monitoring is easy, changing behavior is hard

Question 18

Goal Monitoring

Answer 18

• Automatic: standards evoked whenever one is self-aware

* Controlled: Carver & Scheier: TOTE model

Question 19

TOTE model

Answer 19

• TOTE: Test, Operate, Test Again, Exit.

* Test: compare self to standard, if discrepant take action, test again until satisfied OR disengage

Question 20

What aspect is important for goal monitoring and maintenance?

Answer 20

Optimism important: if you do not feel a goal is achievable (not reducing discrepancy fast enough), you’ll often will disengage rather than continue to pursue it (even if discrepant)

Question 21

Why is breaking down goals helpful?

Answer 21

• This is why sometimes breaking a larger goal into smaller subgoals is helpful, increases motivation by making the discrepancy with standard seem smaller/more achievable

Question 22

Why does self-regulation succeed or fail?

Answer 22

Self control! Some people are just better than others a self-control

Question 23

Marshmallow or Cookie test

Answer 23

Can have one cookie as soon as you ring the bell, but if wait until experimenter gets back, can have more cookies

Question 24

Mischel’s work

Answer 24

Reliable differences in ability to delay gratification at age 4
Related to cognitive skill in focusing on ‘cold’ rather than ‘hot’ properties of stimuli (“fluffy clouds”)
Also related to behavioral control (e.g., not looking at the marshmallow)

Question 25

indicator of self-control

Answer 25

delayed gratification

Question 26

Mischel’s 4 year olds with good self-regulation/self-control

Answer 26

In their teens, better grades and better SATs (controlling for IQ)
Better peer relationships
Less drug and alcohol abuse
In their 30s, 
Fewer divorces
Higher career achievement
Higher net worth/better credit scores
Lower rates of obesity
Lower rates of incarceration

Question 27

what traits have impact on the 4 year olds self-control?

Answer 27

Initial performance can reflect social class, as well as other cultural differences –but can also be learned/boosted through early childhood interventions

Question 28

as adults, good regulators show what?

Answer 28

• automatic association of temptations with the superordinate goal
  (e. g donut means thin if you’re on a diet)
• Can explain why mentally rehearsing obstacles on the path to goal pursuit is so much better then imagining outcome

Question 29

Hot Properties Vs Cold Properties of a temptation

Answer 29

Hot are the good parts (sugary, sweet, smelling or licking)

Cold are unrelated to temptation (fluffy cloud)

Question 30

behavioral control

Answer 30

looking away from marshallow

Question 31

Strength model of self-control

Answer 31

• All acts of self-control seem to draw upon same regulatory ‘resource’ –analogy to a muscle that can get “tired” after use
• dominant for 20 yrs
• The fact that self-control feels as if it is tapping into all one resource helps explain why pursuing more than one type of self-control at a time is VERY hard (why you shouldn’t quit smoking and go on a diet at the same time)
• Should be capable of both temporary exhaustion, and long term strengthening with “exercise”

Question 32

Examples of “muscle”/strength model of self-control

Answer 32

• Thought suppression for 5 minutes (“don’t think of a white bear”)–resulted in less persistence on unsolvable anagram task compared to “think about anything you want”
• Emotion suppression– inhibiting emotional expression while watching a movie led to lower ability to hold closed a handgrip
• Resisting cookies and chocolates in a taste test led to less persistence on an anagram task

Question 33

Muraven’s posture study

Answer 33

• participants who practiced their posture for 2 weeks, were less depleted in a lab manipulation (thought suppression) than those who didn’t
• Implies the more you control the self, the better you get at it. . .so should diet AFTER successfully quitting smoking (or vice versa)
• part of the muscle model

Question 34

Self-Control as a “Bank”

Answer 34

• Newer models imply it is more like monitoring a bank account –the more we spend, the less willing we are to spend later if we think we risk running out. So we ‘budget’ our efforts.
• Some people believe “self-control” is unlimited. . .and for them, it appears to be.
• so can’t be an actual limited resource.

Question 35

why does “practice” work for self-control? (under bank model)

Answer 35

• It teaches us how big our account really is. . .and how easily it can be replenished
• The reason beliefs about “unlimited” self-control works is that they don’t worry about running out

Question 36

Growth/Incremental Mindset

Answer 36

“I believe that my (personality, intelligence, character) can be continuously developed. My true potential is unknown and unknowable”

Question 37

Individuals w/ Growth or Incremental Mindset

Answer 37

• not afraid to fail
• put lots of effort to learn
• desire continuous learning
• confront uncertainties

Question 38

Fixed/Entity Mindset

Answer 38

“I believe that my (personality, intelligence, character) is inherent and static. My potential is determined at birth. It doesn’t change.”

Question 39

Individual w/ fixed Mindset

Answer 39

• desire to look smart
• avoids challenges
• stick to what they know
• Feedback and criticism is personal
• they don’t change or improve

Question 40

Why is our mindset important for goals?

Answer 40

• May be the key to persisting in ANY goal pursuit
• Different interpretation of signals sent by failure/obstacles/difficulties
• If entity –the feeling of difficulty or exerting effort or persisting after failure is unpleasant because it means you’re just not good at something
• If incremental – that same feeling is NOT unpleasant – it means you are working towards something you are not good at YET

Question 41

What mindset do we have in the U.S and Why?

Answer 41

We are largely entity believers in the US.
We discuss fostering a child’s “natural talents” or abilities.
We tell them they are smart, charming, athletic, great at math, have beautiful voices, etc.

Question 42

How to cultivate growth mindest

Answer 42

• Parents: Praise children for EFFORT not ability
• Ignore performance (at least a little bit), and focus on the process of learning/mastery
• Teach them that struggling signifies progress, and is normal, often necessary to master a subject. NOT a threat to their self-beliefs about intelligence
• In schools: teach students the truth that people are incredibly changeable – whether in academic skills, social skills, or personality