Psych 471 Final Flashcards
What are the six social trends affecting the traditional view of marriage?
- Increased acceptance of singlehood
- Increased acceptance of cohabitation
- Increased fagility of marriage
- Transitions in gender roles
- Increased voluntary childlessness
- Decline of traditional nuclear family
In regards to the social trends affecting the traditional view of marriage, describe the increased acceptance of singlehood.
xxxx
In regards to the social trends affecting the traditional view of marriage, describe the increased acceptance of cohabitiation.
Cohabitation means living together in a sexual, intimate relationship without the legal bonds of marriage.
Negative attitudes toward cohabitation have declined
Married couples are now the minority (49.7% of households are married)
Cohabitating couples increasingly include children
In regards to the social trends affecting the traditional view of marriage, describe the increasing fragility of marriage
There is a disagreement and controversy over the accuracy of divorce rates.
The divorce rate more than doubled between 1965 and 1979
66% of divorce rates are initiated by women
Describe ethnicity divorces
The divorce rate for African Americans is ~2% higher
Asian-Americans divorce rate is MUCH lower
In regards to the social trends affecting the traditional view of marriage, describe the transition in gender roles.
Role expectations for husbands and wives are becoming more varied, flexible, and ambiguous
500% increase in employment of mothers of small children
(1950- 12% of mothers with children
200-60% of mothers with children)
2006: Women earned earned 51% of all PhDs (compared to 39% of women in 1995 and 22% in 1975)
In regards to the social trends affecting the traditional view of marriage, describe the increased voluntary childlessness
And discuss the reasons that married couples want to be childless.
The percent of women without kids has risen in all age groups
The percent of childfree couples has DOUBLED since 1980
An increasing # of married couples who choose to not have children reasons: focus on career rather than family, desire independence, concerns about overpopulation.)
In regards to the social trends affecting the traditional view of marriage, describe the decline of the traditional nuclear family.
Less than 10% of American families fit the traditional
breadwinner husband+homemaker wife= ~2 Kids
The nuclear family has never existed for minority families and low SES families.
When deciding to marry, what are American women socialized to do?
How many Americans marry at least once?
American women are socialized to believe that their lives are not complete until they get married.
90% of Americans marry at least once
In regards to predictors of marital success, describe measuring
It is difficult to measure, many unhappy couples who do not get divorced.
There are no fool proof predictors of marital success
Length of time does not = success in relationship
In regards to predictors of marital success, descibe family background and age
In family background, intergenerational “divorce cycle”; people from dysfunctional families have negative relationship templates
Parental hostility level predicts marital hostility level of off spring
Age- As people marry older, divorce rates may decline
In regards to predictors of marital success, descibe length of courtship and personality.
Length of Courtship-
Waiting longer leads to greater chance of marital success
People who are cautious about marriage have attitudes and values that promote marital stability
Personality-
Surprisingly, personality similarity is NOT predictive of marital success.
Traits that are bad for marriage= perfectionism and insecurity
**In regards to predictors of marital success, descibe premarital communication**
Marital distress and divorce are more likely if courtship has: negativity, sarcasm, insults, and lack of support
Positive communication elements:
Relationships with self disclosure and acceptance are the most successful-being understood and validated is strongly related to marital satisfaction.
Forgiveness is also related to marital satisfaction
Playfulness and positive emotion in mundane, everyday interactions.
In regards to predictors of marital success, describe stress.
Stressful situations surrounding a marriage increase conflict and distress and decrease stability.
Stressors include: financial issues, infidelity, distance, losing a job
In regards to adjusting to children discuss:
Marital satisfaction
Do people change their mind
Voluntary childless women
Marital satisfaction is highest in marriage before the arrival of the first child.
~25% change their mind
Voluntary childless women have higher income and more work experience.
What are reasons that couples have children?
Responsibilites to procreate
Joy of watching children mature
Sense of purpose
Satisfaction
Don’t want to be lonely when old
In regards to adjusting to children discuss:
How many mothers experience Postpartum Depression
Transition to parenthood
Postpartum Depression:
10-13% of new mothers experience post partum depression
Risk Factors= Family histroy of depression, high stress, and marital dissatisfaction
Transition to Parenthood:
Is more difficult whewn father does not meet mother’s childcare expectations
Fathers with nontraditional gender ideologies are more proactive with childrearing and have better relationships
In regards to adjusting to children, what is it associated with?
Having children is associated with lower marital satisfaction
Mothers of infants are the least satisfied
Negative relationship between # of children and marital satisfaction
Having children is associated with higher rates of stress and depression and a lower experience of positive emotionss
In regards to childrearing, discuss the “little adult myth” and when interacting with children what to do.
More productive to think of yourself as a wild animal trainer
You cannot reason with a small child. Reason and logic go out the window.
Techniques derived from Behaviorism are very effective with children-Contingency Managements (Reinforcing positive behaviors and ignoring/redirecting behavior)
When interacting with children…
Use active listening
Empower with a “feeling vocabulary”
Avoid negative reactions such as yelling, name-calling, sarcasn, pleasing, and guilt.
In regards to childrearing:
What does research show
What are better childrearing
What do children want more than anything.
Research consistently shows that physical discipline is always a BAD idea
Much better childrearing skills:
Reinforcing positive behaviors
Ignoring or redirecting negative behaviors
Empirically supported methods such as 1-2-3
More than anything children want:
Attention
If they don’t get it in positive ways, then they will seek it by misbehaving. (Children communicate via “bad” behavior; Children can manipulate parents and control households)
What are the five parenting tips?
- Let expectations be known
- Communicate the consequences of noncompliance
- Give a warning before disciplining
- Follow through
- *Be confident*
In regards to parenting tips, discuss:
Follow through and Consistency
Followthrough-children must understand that adults mean business
Consistency is important, because inconsistency makes discipline seem random. random discipline leads to random behavior.
Parental responses must be predictive
The importance of structure and repetition
In regards to adolescent children and elder care discuss:
What stage is most difficult as rated by parents
And discuss, middle aged couples.
Parents overwhelmingly rate adolescents as the most difficult stage of parenting. (Problematic parent-teen relationships are the exception rather than the rule)
Middle aged couples sometimes care for aging parents as well. (“sandwich generation”
33% of women aged 55-69 care for children and parents simultaneously
Caring for an aging parent is associated with increased psychological distress
Middle aged women have the highest stress levels of any demographic.
Discuss the importance of communication
Effective communication is the #1 ingredient in a healthy marriage
Most frequently cited problem and is the #1 cause of divorce
Importance of feeling safe to discuss conflict, and the importance of how conflict is handled
Unhappy couples get stuck in escalating cycles of conflict. Happy couples break the cycle.
The importance of momentum.
Discuss Unhappy Marriages
Unhappily married couples:
Have difficulty conveying positive messages
Misunderstood
Are less likely to recognize misunderstandings
Use more frequent and more intense negative messages
Differ in the amount of self-disclosure they prefer
Discuss the four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
1. Contempt Communicating that one’s spuse is inferior
2. Criticism Negative evaluations of one’s partner; “You” statements
3. Defensiveness Responding by invalidating, refuting, or denying the partner’s statements
4. Stonewalling Refusing to listen to one’s partner
In regards to divorce, discuss when divorce is likely and divorce rates. And, what are the stigmas of older and newer attitudes?
Divorce rates have recently gone down slightly because of the economy.
Most people underestimate their likelihood of experiencing divorce
Most divorces occur during the first decade of their marriage
Older attitudes: suffer in silence
Newer attitudes: the importance of individual fulfillment
When deciding on divorce, what are the pros and cons?
Divorce is a process rather than a discrete event
Pros
Higher rates of autonomy , self awareness, personal growth, and job success.
The importance of a social suppport network
Unhappily married people have lower life satisfaction and lower self esteem
Cons
Expense, stress, higher incidence of physical and psychological health problems, lower happiness.
When adjusting to divorce, who is it more disruptive towards?
Who assumes the childrearing responsibilities/?
And, preoccupation with an ex-spouse is associated with what?
Divorce is more difficult and disruptive for women, especially financially. Men also experience a decline in standard of living.
Women are more likely to assume childrearing responsibilities, whereas men are more likely to reduce their contact with children
Effect of divorce on well-being is similar for both sexes.
High preocccupation with an ex-spouse is associated with poorer adjustment. (this is referring to the person that was dumped)
What are some factors predicting favorable post-divorce adjustment?
Higher income
Remarriage
Positive attitudes about the divorce
Being the initiator (thye will have control)
Forgiveness of the ex-spouse
Supportive social relationships
How many children are affected by divorce?
Is divorce traumatic for children?
What are some potential outcomes?
30-40% of US children will experience divorce by the age 16
~20-35% of the above children will experience significant mental health and life problems
Maladjustment, marital instability, reduced occupational attainments
Divorce can be traumatic for children, but a substantial majority adjust reasonably well
Potential positive outcomes:
Enhanced personal growth, life management skills, realistic expectations, enhanced empathy
Divorce is positive especially if parents’ relationship was dominated by conflict
What is the best thing that divorced parents can give their children?
The best thing that divorced parents can give their children is civilty between one another.
Parents continued interaction at major life events (graduation, birthdays, weddings, etc)
Conflict between parents, rather than divorce, is the major risk factor to children
When are the effects the most profound?
Which is worse short (preschoolers or older kids?) or long (preschoolers or older kids?) term consequences?
Effects are most profound 1 year after the divorce
Aggressiveness, noncompliance, acting out behaviors, disrupted relationships, academic difficulties
Short term consequences are worse for preschoolers
Long term consequences are worse for older children
What are the sex differences of effects of divorce on children?
No overall difference by sex in terms of adjustment
BOYS show greater distress initially, whereas GIRLS develop problems in adolescence
What are the effects of divorce on girls?
Increased noncompliance
Conflict with mother
Antisocial behaviors
Decreased self esteem
Sexual difficulties (increased or decreased)
What type of relationship do most homosexual men and almost all homesexual women prefer?
About what % are always in a committed relationship?
Which are sexually exclusive and about what % of gay relationships are “open”?
Long Term
~40-60% of gay men
~45-80% of lesbians are in a committed relationship
Lesbian relationships ar usually sexually exclusive
~50% of gay relationships are “open”
In regards to sexual minority couples, who continue to be the victims of homophobia?
And, how?
What happens to them in states where gay marriage is illegal?
Gay and Lesbian
Employment and housing discrimination
Verbal and physical abuse
Hate crimes
In states where gay marriage is illegal, sexual minorities:
Can not file joint taxes
Cannot obtain employer-provided health insurance and retirement plans
What has research found in regards to sexual minority couples?
No adverse effects on divorce rates, abortion rates, or rate of single parenthood as a result of allowing gay marriage
Close relationships fx in similar ways regardless of sexual orientation (All relationships feature similar factors that predict satisfaction, sources of conflict, and patterns of conflict resolution)
Gay couples’ relationships are somewhat briefer and more prone to breakups (less likely due to stress imposed by societal discrimination)
About how many same sex couples are rearing children?
What has research shown in difference between effects of homo and hetero sexual parenting?
What about children of gay parents?
What is the most important thing about parent-child interactions?
33% of female and 22% of male same sex couples are rearing children (20-30% of homo couples have been married hetero before)
NO difference between the effects of homo and hetero parenting.
Children of gay parents are no more likely than others to be gay
The QUALITY of parent-child interactions is much more important to a child’s development
What is the dif between sex and gender?
Sex:
Biological- Male, Female, Intersexed
Gender:
Psychological and subjective
Gender is a continuum-not an either/or
Someone who is biologically male may be psychologically feel female and vice versa
What is the sexual continuum 0-6?
- Exclusively heterosexual
- Predominantly heterosexual only incidentally homosexual
- Predominantly heterosexual more than incidentally homosexual
- Equally hetero and homo
- Predominantly homo more than incidentally hetero
- Predominantly homo only incidentally hetero
- Exclusively homo
What does socialization mean?
What does gender roles mean?
Socialization-The acquisition of the norms and roles expected of people in a society (if you don’t watch the super bowl and know the score- youare considered strange)
Gender Roles- Traditional cultural expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each gender
Explain the Social Role Theory
Minor gender dif are exaggerated by the dif social roles of males and females.
(women are socially assigned the roles of caregiver, so they learn to behave in nurturing ways-males and females can be equally nurturing)
Gender differences occur (and seem larger than they actually are) because males and females are guided by different role expectations
In regards to changing gender roles, describe division of labor, physical strength, and do gender roles make sense.
Gender roles have traditionally involved a division of labor based on physical strength
Few jobs require physical strength anymore
Traditional gender roles no longer make economic sense.
Define social constructionism
Individuals construct their own reality based on societal expectations, conditioning, and socialization
Applied to gender: our beliefs about gender are rooted in the “gendered” messages that permeate socialization experiences
Define cultural narratives
Messages suffused into our minds through culture and the media
Common cultural narratives about gender: disney princesses, old spice commercials, Axe, Dr Pepper 10
How do cultural narratives influence behavior?
Boys and girls are devalued more for what?
Do boys or girls experience more lonliness and distress and are more likely to be bullied
Parents, teachers, peers, and others often reinforce “gender appropriate” behavior Ex boys being reinforced not to cry
Parents are much less tolerant of gender inappropriate behavior, especially in sons
Both boys and girls are critical of peers who violate traditional gender norms.
Boys are devalued more for dressing like a girl in ways reminiscent of the other gender
Girls are devalued for playing like boys
“Gender atypical” BOYS
How many hours of tv does the average household watch per day?
About what % of children have a tv in their room?
~8 hours
35% of kisd are raised in homes in which the tv is on “always” or “most of the time” (these kids have a lower reading level)
66% of kids have a tv in their room, these kids are less likely to engage in healthy behaviors
On TV, females appear less often, and are less likely to…
On cartoons…
females are:
be employed (especially in prestigious occupations)
be older
appear in the lead role
On cartoons:
male characters are more likely to engage in aggression
female characters are more likely to show fear and act supportive
What are even more gender stereotyped than TV programs
What are women frequently show worrying about…
Men typically appear as…
Commercials are even more gender stereotyped than tv programs
Women are shown worrying about trivial matters such as laundry and cleaning products
Men typically appear as bold outdoorsmen or energetic sports fans
In regards to the objectification of women discuss:
what the vast majority look like on tv
what the overweight female characters are subjective to
The vast majority of females on tv are young, attractive, and sexy
Overweight female characters are much more likely to receive negative somments about their weight, related to body image problems and rate of eating disorders in females
Eating disorders increased dramatically in only 3 years
In regards to the objectification of women, discuss societal factors and pathology
Only 5% of American women can achieve the size required to be a fashion model.
By the 5th grade, 31% of girls are dieting and 11.3% experience disordered eating
What is the flow chart for societal factors?
Unrealistic media portrayal of thinness
Stigma of being overweight/rewards of being thin
Objectification of women
Sellf-evaluation based on appearance
Self-objectificaiton
Anxiety and shame about appearance
Disturbed eating and depression
What do video games promote?
What do music videos promote?
Video games:
Hypermasculine stereotype
The few games that are directed at girls are highly stereotypical
Music Videos:
Frequently portray women as sex objects
Portray men as dominating and aggressive
What is male help-seeking behavior?
Men are less likely to seek help for academic difficulties
Research has shown that men are also less likely to seek help for: mental health, career concerns, medical concerns
Men are sig more likely to engage risky, controllable health related behaviors
What is the paradigm shift?
Reconceptualized masculinity
*Challenged the male sex role identity paradigm
Idea that masculinity (&femininity) develop and each person must actively develop a healthy gender identity or suffer consequences
How we bond with a same sex parent determines how “successful” we are at foraging our gender identity
The MSRI paradigm has since been harshley criticized
*Unhealthy cultural narratives about gender lead to many problems
What is the gender role strain paradigm
The idea that gender is socially constructed and thus is not from within
Derived from postmodern thought
In regards to the gender role strain, what is the discrepancy strain?
Distress from failing to live up to an interalized ideal
In regards to the gender role strain, what is the dysfunction strain?
Suffering consequences from conforming to traditional gender roles
(A man whose wife divorces him because he doesn’t express emotion and is unable to communicate)
In regards to the gender role strain, what is the trauma strain?
Trauma resulting from the male gender role socialization process (athletes who are hazed)
According to Brannon, what is the male code (5)?
No sissy stuff
The big wheel
The sturdy oak
Give em hell
Pollack-Real Boys
In regards to the Male Code, what does “No sissy stuff” mean?
The idea that men should avoid demonstrating stereotypically feminine behavior
Societal pressure saying that a man shouldnt wear pink or watch “chick flicks”
In regards to the Male Code, what does “The Big Wheel” mean?
The idea that men should be respected for displaying competitivesness and achievement
Manifests as workaholism and overly competitive behavior
In regards to the Male Code, what does the “Sturdy Oak” mean?
The idea that men should never reveal “weakness” or convey any emotion other than anger (athletes who play with an injury)
May lead to normative male alexithymia-the inability to communicate emotion
Children whose fathers are warm, loving an accepting have higher self-esteem and lower rates of aggression and behavior problems
In regards to the Male Code, what does “give ‘em hell” mean?
The idea that men should seek adventure and take risks, even if it mean engaging in violence (stunt men who risk their bodies for thrills)
What are the role expectations for females?
*The marriage manfate
Most women are socialized to feel incomplete until they find a mate (fear of being an old maid)
*the motherhood mandate
Belief that mothers should be self-sacrificing rather than having their own needs and interests
*Working outside the home
Women who juggle multiple roles experence many burdens and conflicts
In regards to multiple roles, what do many women trade, and are multiple roles inherently problematic?
Many women trade off the worker role and income for a slower pace and less stress to rear young children
Multiple roles are not inherently problematic
Problem stems from tensions among roles and the unequal sharing of role responsibilities (when role interferes with another)
What are the five stages of the Feminine Identity Development model?
- Passive Acceptance
- Revelation
- Embeddedness-emanation
- Synthesis
- Active Commitment
In the Feminine Identity Model by Downing and Roush, describe stage 1
- Passive Acceptance
(1950s stay at home)
Passive acceptance of traditional gender roles and discrimination
The belief that traditional gender roles are preferable and than men are superior
In the Feminine Identity Model by Downing and Roush, describe stage 2
- Revelation (Key Stage-death of a loved one, abusive relationship, shocks into awareness)
Increasing awareness (possibly triggered by a crisis)
Feeling anger and guilt
Black and white thinking, no grey area (perceiving men in a more negative)
Hypervigilent -assume the worse in relationships
In the Feminine Identity Model by Downing and Roush, describe stage 3
- Embeddedness-Emanation
Connectedness with other women
Strengthening identity
More relativistic thinking-critical thinking, more “grey thinking”
In the Feminine Identity Model by Downing and Roush, describe stage 4
- Synthesis
Development of a positive female ifentity
Gender role transcendence-overcoming and refuting gender roles
In the Feminine Identity Model by Downing and Roush, describe stage 5
- Active Commitment (Crystalization)
Consolidation of identity
Commitment to a nonsexist world
Men are considered equal but different-balanced view of gender and sex
Giving back, instill wisdom and instill it in others
Where do people get their info about sex?
Friends (47%)
Sex Education classes
Partners
Media
Parents
What is an abstinence only program?
No information about contraceptives
Completely ineffective at delaying intercourse
Explain “abstinence plus” programs?
Both abstinence and gives some info on contraceptives
Explain “comprehensive” programs
Info on contraception, abortion, STDs, relationships, sexual orientation, and responsible decision making
Highly effective: Increases contraception use, decreases teen pregnancy, reduces high risk behavior, and may delay intercourse
In regards to the media, in 1998 about what percent of TV shows had sexual content, and in 2005?
What can TV portrayals of sex influence?
1998-55%
2005-70%
TV portrayals of sex can influence beliefs about typical sexual practices, sexual intentions and behavior.
Are men or women more likely to use the internet to explore online sexual relationships?
Women
What are the 4 phases of the Masters and Johnson’s, Sexual Response Cycle?
- Excitement
- Plateau
- Orgasm
- Resolution
In regards to the Sexual Response Cycle, explain phase 1
- Excitement
Triggered by sexual desire, fantasies, attraction, etc
Foreplay
Vasocongestion
Males: Erection, swollen testes, scrotum moves closer to the body
Females: Vaginal lubrication, swelling of the clit and labia, enlargement of uterus, nipple erection, swelling of breasts
In regards to the Sexual Response Cycle, explain phase 2
- Plateau
Misleading name-arousal continues to build, but at a slower pace
Distraction can delay or stop movement to orgasm (turn off cell phones)
In regards to the Sexual Response Cycle, explain phase 3
- Orgasm
Subjective experience of orgasm is similar for men and women
relationship between subjective experience and physical response is greater for men
In regards to the Sexual Response Cycle, explain phase 4
- Resolution
Men experience a “refractory period”; varies in time and increases with age
Sometimes involves…
pillow talk
cuddling
ordering from insomnia cookies
What is the key to a satisfying sex life?
Effective communication with your partner
Avoid defensiveness
Inhibited communication is strongly linked to sexual dissatisfaction
Express your needs. Your partner does not know what you want if you don’t say
What are the 4 barriers to sexual communication
- Fear of appearing ignorant
- Concern about partner’s response
- Conflicting attitudes about sex
- Negative early sexual experiences
In regards to the Barriers to Sexual Communication, explain stage 1
- Fear of appearing ignorant
Pressure to be an expert combined with knowing you are not–>shame and fear of disclosure
In regards to the Barriers to Sexual Communication, explain stage 2
- Concern about partner’s response
People are afraid of hurting partner’s feelings
More extensive disclosure of likes and dislikes positively predicts satisfaction
Tell your partner what you like and how to please you
Focus on the positive (“I like it when you…”)
In regards to the Barriers to Sexual Communication, explain stage 3
- Conflicting attitudes about sex
Many people are burdened with negative sexual messages and guilt from childhood
Contradictory beliefs (beautiful vs dirty)
In regards to the Barriers to Sexual Communication, explain stage 4
- Negative early sexul experiences
If due to ignorant or inconsiderate partners, positive subsequent experiences can help
If due to trauma, psychotherapy can help
What are 6 ways to enhancing sexual relationships
- Pursue adequate sex education
- review your sexual values system
- Communicate about sex
- Avoid goal setting
- Enjoy and explore your sexual fantasies
- Be selective about sex
In regards to enhancing sexual relationships, explain pursuing adequate sex education
Reading material from credited authors
In regards to enhancing sexual relationships, explain reviewing your sexual values system
Many sex problems stem from values that associate sex with immortality and guilt
In regards to enhancing sexual relationships, explain communicating about sex
Be candid and tactful
In regards to enhancing sexual relationships, explain avoiding goal setting
Sex is not a race or a contest
Be in the moment
Can’t think too much
A grim determination to climax makes it harder to do so
Avoid judging performance
Focus on the process rather than the outcome
The less pressure the better (both on you and your partner)
In regards to enhancing sexual relationships, explain enjoying and exploring your sexual fantasies
The mind is the ultimate erogenous zone
Sexual fantasizing is the most common among couples withthe fewest sexual problems
In regards to enhancing sexual relationships, explain being selective about sex
Ideally choose the right time, the right mood, the right setting, and the right partner
Situation and context are crucial.
