psych Flashcards
Independent self-construal
Self is defined: separate from others, autonomous, focus is on individuality and uniqueness
correlational research
- the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables
- Variables can be positively correlated or negatively correlated
- Correlations tell us how they are related (variables)
- Correlation is not causation
correlational research
- the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables
- Variables can be positively correlated or negatively correlated
- Correlations tell us how they are related (variables)
- Correlation is not causation
internal validity
- extent to which research yields clear causal info
- Higher in experimental research
working self-concept
Situations may activate different aspects of self-concepts
- social context (agentic vs communal)
- social identity (group membership)
introspection
- looking inward and examining our own thoughts, feelings and motives
- reliable
Reflected appraisals
- Seeing how other people see us
- People counting on u
implicit egotism
Influences major life decision
- where people live
- what people do for a living
- whom they marry
impact bias
overestimating impact of emotion-causing events
Negative events
immune neglect (include strategies for rationalizing, discounting, forgiving, and limiting emotional trauma)
Positive events
focal event fades out, replaced with daily hassles
Above average effect
people see themselves as better than average on positive dimensions
Bottom-up
people have self-esteem because they observe that they are smart and liked
Top-down
people believe they are smart and liked because they have high self-esteem
channel of communication
personal and media
Positive correlation
as value x increases the values of y increases
Negative correlation
as the value x increases the value of y decreases
experimental research
- Manipulating some factor to see its effect on another
- Overcome shortcomings of correlational designs because can infer causation with experiments
2 essential features required - manipulation of the independent variable
- random assignment to conditioner
- manipulating it overcomes the reverse directionality problem
- random assignment overcomes the third variable problem by distributing all other variables equally
external validity
- Extent to which results generalize beyond current sample, setting
- Higher in correlational research
Interdependent self-construal
The self is defined: connected to others, behavior, thoughts, traits, harmonious relationships are essential
self-serving bias
- self-serving cognitions
- self-handicapping
- downward social comparison
- temporal comparisons
self-serving cognitions
- Take credit for success and blame others for failure
- Internal attribution for success
- Failures are external attributions
self-handicapping
- Make excuses for future performances
- Behaviors that sabotage performance, providing and excuse for failure
- Lack of effort, illness, procrastination
- Protects SE with failure and enhances SE with success
- Increases risk of failure
Downward social comparison
- Making comparisons with worse others
- Negative tests feedback feels ok if someone else did worse than you
Temporal Comparisons
- Subjective experience of time
- Comparing yourself from a different time
- Being able to recall the better memory closer compared to bad memory
- Distancing yourself from negative to make yourself feel good about current self
Priming
- Unattended stimuli can subtly influence how we later perceive, judge, and behave
- Participants exposed to aging related words (walked more slowly)
- Participants exposed to warm drink (rated another person as more interpersonally warm)
Heuristics
- “Mental shortcuts” used in judgment and decision making
- Useful for living in complex social world (may lead to faulty beliefs and suboptimal decisions)
- 2 kinds: representativeness and availability
Representativeness Heuristic
- Estimate the likelihood of the event by comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds
- People are insensitive to base rate frequencies (determining whether a person resembles a typical member of group)
Availability Heuristics
- Based on belief: ease with which evidence or examples come to mind is a measure of how common it is
- How easy is it to come up with an example
Egocentric bias
tendency to assume one contributed more than ones fair share to joint task
Fundamental attribution error
- Tendency to overlook impact of situation and attribute someone’s actions to his dispositions
- Making “internal” attribution for other peoples behaviors
Attribution theory
- 2 general causes of behavior: external (situation) vs internal (personal)
internal attribution
behavior caused by inter factors (personality, attitudes, motives)
external attribution
person’s behavior is caused by situational factors
Kelley’s covariation model
3 pieces of info
- consensus
- distinctiveness
- consistency
consensus
general agreement
distinctiveness
reacting to certain stimuli or other ones as well
consistency
looking at the past for patterns
perceptual salience
Tend to believe that what we focus on must be important
confirmation biases
- Seek, interpret, and create info that verifies existing beliefs
- We interpret ambiguous events in ways that confirm existing beliefs
- whether they are true or not
Self-fulling prophecies and prejudice
Prejudice can create self-fulfilling prophecy
self-regulation
Adapting one’s behavior, emotions, and cognitions to meet a goal
lay beliefs
common sense explanation of things
fixed mindset
you’re either good or not, can’t change much, would belief that self control is a limited resource
growth mindset
can improve with practice and effort, can change, is not energy being drained its a muscle being exercised
grit
Passion and sustained persistence applied toward long term goals
2 types of motivation
intrinsic and extrinsic
intrinsic
internal drives that motivate us to behave in certain ways, core values, our interests (ex. Affiliation, personal development)
extrinsic
a drive to behave in certain ways that comes from external sources and results in external rewards (ex. Wealth, fame, attractiveness)
3 basic psychological needs
competence, autonomy, relatedness,
autonomy
need to control the course of their lives
Competence
need to be effective in dealing with environment
Relatedness
need to have close, affectionate relationships with others
Too many rewards can undercut intrinsic motivation
Approach motivation
behavior is direct by +/desirable event of portability (towards rewards)
Avoidance motivation
behavior is direct by a -/undesirable event or possibility (away from threats)
Affective sources
Affective sources
evaluative conditioning
- association with positive and negative events
- Change in liking, which occurs due to association with positive or negative stimulus
mere exposure effect
repeated contact increases liking
Moral hypocrisy:
disconnected between what they say and what they do
self-presentation theory
Behave a certain way to make a good impression on others, and then express attitude that match those actions
Experience cognitive dissonance
Tension that arises when there is a discrepancy between one’s attitudes and behavior
When does behavior predict attitudes?
- Self presentation theory
- Cognitive dissonance theory
- Self perception theory
Foot in the door phenomenon
Tendency for people who have first agreed to small request to comply later with larger request
2 routes to persuasion
central and peripheral
central
- thoughtful consideration of argument
- facts/ideas
- consideration of pros/cons
- analytical and motivated
Peripheral
- based on cues
- attractive people
- not analytical or invovled
big discrepancy
- buy everything organic
- works best if it is a credible source
Eg. message from food science professor
small discrepancy
works if it is not a very credible source
Eg. message from another consumer
one-sided appeal
If audience already agrees with message, and will not find out the cons, a one-sided appeal is best
2 sided appeal
address “cons” too
primacy
Information presented early has more influence
Recency
Information presented last can sometimes overwrite information that came first
Six Persuasion Principles
authority, liking, social proof, reciprocity, consistency, scarcity
authority
people defer to credible experts
liking
people respond more affirmatively to those they like
special proof
people allow the exmaple of others to validate how to think, feel, and act
reciprocity
people feel obligated to repay in kind what they’ve received
consistency
people to tend to honor their public commitments
scarcity
people prize whats scarce
