Psych 112 Exam 2

Question 1

Developmental Psychology

Answer 1

Study how people change and grow overtime: Physically, psychologically, socially

Question 2

Developmental Designs

Answer 2

Cross-Sectional: Different ages are compared at a given time. 20 vs 30 vs 40 vs 50 (all at one time)

Longitudinal: Are assessed overtime. Following an find. periodically reassessed over a period of time. (apply to past or future generation)
20 to 30 to 40 (Only work for one cohort, group)

Cross-Sequential: Group of people are followed over a short period of time & compared over time (20;30) (30;40) (40;50)

Question 3

Themes explored in Development

Answer 3

It is Dynamic. What contribute to a child development is a 2 way street. Some believe we are born with a blank canvas (old mentality, not true)
We are born with our own temper and we impact our environment too.

Socio-historial and cultural context
Need to understand Developement this way. Your grandparents had a different experience.

Development is flexible: not set in tone

Question 4

Cautions about developmental research

Answer 4

Not experimental (no cause and effect)
You parent a certain way and might not have the outcome you think

Not ethical
Can’t assign groups to different parenting approach
No control group or random assignment

Question 5

Erikson Psychosocial stages of development. Which approach

Answer 5

Lifespan approach: there are stages, challenges (crises) when successful, we move on to the next stage. If not, will bleed into the next stage (8 stages) For healthy development, deal with it before moving on to the next

Question 6

Describe the 8 stages of development of Erikson

Answer 6

Progression is valid even if the age might varied
1. Trust vs Mistrust (0-1 year old)
“Can I trust someone will come when I need food and other needs?”

2. Autonomy vs Shame and doubt (1-3)
   Can they explore on their own a little bit without overprotective
3. Initiative vs Guilt (3-5) just before school
   As a separate entity, they want to make their own decision.
4. Competence vs Inferiority (6-12 years old) Self-esteem needs, meeting friends, clubs; developing who they are successfully (too much failure can lead in inferiority)
5. Identity vs Role confusion (13-19 years old) What would I do in the future, Who am I. Can overlap with stage 6.
6. Intimacy and Isolation (20-40) Developing relationships/Intimacy other than family. If not, leads to isolation
7. Generativity vs self-absorbtion (40-65)
   Crises: What is my contribution to the world, what is my purpose. Growth mindset? Career?
8. Ego identity vs despair (65 years old)
   Reflection, Am I happy? Fulfilled. Do I have regrets?

Question 7

Father of the theory (Social-Emotional Attachment) and how it begins

Answer 7

John Bowlby: Everyone develops types of attachment with their caregiver)

Begins with contact comfort (Monkey experiment with the fluffy mom vs metal mom who has food)

Question 8

Describe how parent-infant attachment bonds form.

Answer 8

Contact comfort
Sensitive and responsive - touch smile consistency, proximity

Question 9

Best age to develop healthy attachment

Answer 9

6 to 8 months is the best time to practice being away from child and coming back.
Peaks at one year because then they realised that what leaves come back.

Question 10

Attachment and culture

Answer 10

Communal cultures show less anxiety because they are attached to many adults at the same time

Question 11

Ainsworth: Stranger situation test

Answer 11

The experiment where the child is with caregiver, caregiver leaves, child with stranger. Observe the reaction
Secure: Happy when parent comes back, happy to explore on their own.
Avoidant: Ignore, angry
Anxious: Cry without stopping

Question 12

What are the factors related to insecure attachment? (4)

Answer 12

1. Abandonment and Deprivation: In the first 2 years.
2. Parenting that is abusive, neglectful, or erratic because the parent is chronically irresponsible or depressed
3. Lack of synchrony between child’s own genetically influenced temperament & parent style
4. Changing, stressful circumstances in the child’s family

Question 13

How is a child affected by being raised in an orphanage?

Answer 13

Lack of individualized attention, unstable caregiver relationships, and early deprivation.
Mistrust caregiver due to non responsiveness. Might develop issue in emotion regulatioon

Question 14

Kohlberg Stage theory of moral developemtn

Answer 14

1. Punishment orientation: Right and wrong are determined by what is being punished (preconventional level)
2. Naive reward orientation: Right and wrong are determined by what is rewarded
   (preconventional level)

3.Goodboy/girl orientation: Determined by close others approval or disapproval
4. Authority: Right and wrong is determined by societ’ys rules and laws which should be obeyed rigidity
(Conventional Level)
Personal code of ethic

5. Social contract orientation: Determined by society rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute
   (postConventional Level) adolesence
6. Individual principles and conscience orientation Determined by abstract ethical principal emphasised on justice

Question 15

Describe adolescent cognitive and moral development, according to Piaget and
Kohlberg

Answer 15

Piaget Cognitive Development Develop abstract thinking, logic, and idealism Not specifically about morality but influences moral reasoning

Kohlberg Moral Development Move from rule-following to questioning laws and seeking justice Moral decisions evolve from seeking approval to following universal ethical principles

Question 16

Describe the social tasks and challenges of adolescence.

Answer 16

is a crucial period of social and emotional development, where individuals navigate identity formation, peer relationships, independence, and societal expectations. Erik Erikson described this stage as the Identity vs. Role Confusion crisis, where teens explore who they are and what they value.

Question 17

Temperament (Thomass and Chess)
Name the 3

Answer 17

Biologically-based: General style of emotional and behavioural reactions to the environment (mood, activity level)

1. Easy: Chill, Happy, overall, playful
2. Slow-to-warm: low-activity, mild reaction (slow to adapt)
3. Difficult: irritable, irregular, adverse reactions to novelty

• Difficult babies, cry louder and get more milk (Masai example)

Question 18

Secret of the wild child - What theories of Language development were being tested and were they supported

Answer 18

Critical Period Hypothesis: They are period within a critical period where we will or will not develop language properly. Sensitivity which in the first few months we need to be exposed to sounds. (18 months up to puberty)

Nativist Theory: We are born with the capacity to learn language (natural language device). Mechanics inside of us

Theories might have been supported but it is hard to tell (Brain damaged or mental disability?) could communicate but grammar was lacking.

Question 19

Secret of a wild child - what have we learnt from this research

Answer 19

They were no volontary consent
Pawn in the game. Attachment with patient (ethic issues) Dua; role
Treated as an experiment.
Research Method Struggling: They did the same test multiple time
No organisation in files, tapes reports etc.

Social development: No matter the trauma, huge need to connect.

Question 20

Development of thinking, two forms of adaptation based on Piaget

Answer 20

Assimilation: Using existing knowledge to understand new situations
Accommodation: Modifying existing knowledge to fit new experiences or objects
Piaget believed that you need both mixed together.

Question 21

Piaget - Stages of cognitive development. (4)

Answer 21

1.Sensorimotor (0-2) Beginning of thoughts and object permanence

2. Preoperational (2-7) Accelerated use of symbols + language. Does not think concretaly Doesnt see themselves as separate.
3. Concrete Operations (7-12) Understanding of conversation. Better than, identity are separate. I am better or they are better than me.
4. Formal Operation (12 to adult): if x then y
   Abstract reasoning, ability to compare and classify ideas.

Question 22

Piaget contributions vs Vygotsky

Answer 22

Piaget: Cognition develops over time. Qualitatively different.
It is active (interaction with environment)
Process of development.
Practical implication for family and educators.
Opens the field of cognitive development

Vygotsky is socio-cultural: viewed learning as a social process, where culture and interaction play a key role.
Guidance from others (Social)

Question 23

Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory

Answer 23

Vygotsky, in contrast, focused on the social and cultural influences on cognitive development. He argued that learning happens through social interactions and that children develop cognitively with the help of more knowledgeable others (parents, teachers, peers).

Key concepts in Vygotsky’s theory include:

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can achieve with guidance. Learning occurs best within this zone.

Scaffolding: Support provided by adults or peers (e.g., breaking tasks into smaller steps or giving hints) helps children develop new skills until they can do them independently.

Language and Thought: Vygotsky saw language as crucial for cognitive development. He believed private speech (talking to oneself) helps children regulate their thinking and solve problems.

Question 24

Describe how parent-infant attachment bonds form.

Answer 24

Skin to ski contact
Eye contact and smiling
Soothing Touch and Voice

Question 25

Adolescence Main Point

Answer 25

Social Construct Period of development between puberty and adulthood Cultural variation in the duration of adolescence (when young are expected to become adult in terms of responsibility.) Emerging adult (new ish concept)

Question 26

Puberty

Answer 26

Age a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction. Onset depends on genetic and environment factors

Question 27

The brain, adolescence and law explain

Answer 27

Development has implication on legal setting US court banned execution of juveniles under age of 18 in 2005 Brain is still developing until 25 - busy limbic system and prefrontal cortex not fully develop.

Question 28

Synaptic Pruning

Answer 28

Use it or lose it Synaptic pruning is a process that removes unused synapses in the brain, helping to refine neural circuits and improve brain efficiency.

Question 29

Fluid Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence

Answer 29

Inductive/Deductive reasoning, perceptual seed, verbal memmory, ability to u see new information to solve problems tend to decline Numeric and verbal ability and specific knowledge of information acquired over a lifetime tend to remain stable .

Question 30

MYTH of growing old

Answer 30

Apparent senility - in the elferly is often caused by the combination of medications ; not working well together More prone to UTI which create symptoms of confusion Depression and passivity; may result from loss of meaningful activity, intellectual stimulation and control over events (Conversation/connection, novelty, autonomy) Weakness and frailty are caused by sedentary lifestyle 30 % of physical loses is associated with genetics and old age

Question 31

Big five core traits

Answer 31

Openness to new experience (relates to creativity) Conscientiousness - impulsiveness (related to tradition definition of success) being on time, organised etc. Extraversion-introversoin (need for stimulation) Agreeableness -disagreeableness (Empathy, works well with others, trust other) Neuroticism - emotional stability: (Negative emotion, predisposition to anxiety. But can pick-up on danger or other things. Sensitive to environment and society

Question 32

Genetic role in personality

Answer 32

Peronality trait is highly stable Identical twins studies indicate high correlation between personality Big 5 are seen across culture Shared family environment appear to play a less role in personality. People might change when you leave home

Question 33

How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?

Answer 33

by identifying stable, consistent patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior that make individuals unique. Traits are considered enduring characteristics that influence how people react to different situations.

Question 34

What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait- assessment tools

Answer 34

Pretty valid and reliable, can be use for career choices and tools for personal growth. Weaknesses: self-reported bias, lack of context, might be too simplified. What about psychology goals? Do not overlook the role of environment.

Question 35

Do Personality Traits Remain Consistent Over Time and Across Situations?

Answer 35

Research in psychology suggests that personality traits show some consistency over time, but they can also be influenced by situations and life experiences. The degree of stability depends on which traits are measured, the time span considered, and the context.

Question 36

Can personality change overtime

Answer 36

Not entirely fixed and can shift in response to personal growth, environmental influences, and major life events.

Question 37

How did Sigmund Freud’s treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind

Answer 37

Repressed memories and the primal desires of reaching pleasure and minimising pain

Question 38

Freud- Structure of personality

Answer 38

Id: Represent psychic energy used to satisfy pleasurable/life sexual, primal needs Ego: the mediator Self-control represent reason, good sense, rational Super Ego: Morality, right or wrong, conscience, social standards

Question 39

How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?

Answer 39

Defense mechanism. Displacement: Displace emotion on someone else Repression: If you experience something traumatic, you will push it down to forgett Sublimation: If you want to engage in something not acceptable, find a way that it is (anger and punching bag) Regression: Go back in time, display behaviour from early time in life. Anxiety - swing yourself back and forth

Question 40

What remains of Freud's theory

Answer 40

Childhood is important but not deterministic the unconscious Mind Defense mechanism reject: the psychosexual stages Oedipus complex, phallic is power

Question 41

How do neo-Freudians differ from Freud?

Answer 41

Neo-Freudians' Broader Unconscious: While they agreed that the unconscious was important, many Neo-Freudians saw it as a more complex and dynamic system that included not just repressed desires, but also memories, ideas, personal goals, and social influences. Example: Carl Jung collective unconscious—a shared repository of universal archetypes and symbols that influence our experiences and behaviors, not just individual repressed memories Neo-Freudians' Broader View of Development: Neo-Freudians moved away from Freud’s strict focus on sexuality as the primary driver of development, proposing that broader psychological and emotional experiences (including social needs, relationships, and personal goals) played a critical role in development. Example: Alfred Adler focused on inferiority complexes and the striving for superiority as central to personality development, shifting the emphasis to motivational factors rather than sexual ones. Freud (inner conflict between id and super ego) but Horney thought: that childhood social relationships, particularly with parents, were critical in forming personality, and she rejected Freud’s theory of women’s “penis envy,” instead focusing on cultural and social reasons for gender differences

Question 42

What are the criticisms of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality

Answer 42

Scientific failing: No good reliability, not falsified, not testible Memory is not always true and accurate it is sexist and all theories are based on "ill" people, atypical patient.

Question 43

How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?

Answer 43

Emphasize personal growth + human potential - free will, we ca change Less emphasis on scientific understanding and assessment of behaviour (subjective experience is important (Phenomenological approach, what it looks like FOR YOU)

Question 44

What did Carl Rogers believe lead to a healthy personality?

Answer 44

Congruency: Self-concept Ideal self and present self need to match. Unconditional Positive Regards: Love and super given to another person without conditions attached.

Question 45

How did Carl Roger assess personality?

Answer 45

How individuals perceive themselves in relation to their experiences.

Question 46

how did Maslow contribute

Answer 46

Steps away from deterministic view Maslow's work emphasized the importance of self-actualization, personal growth, and the fulfillment of human potential in shaping personality.

Question 47

How have humanistic theories influenced psychology? What criticisms have they faced?

Answer 47

Lead to the field of positive psychology - instead of just looking at people with issue, looks at how we can thrive. Downside: can not be tested as it is subjective experience, culturally confined, underestimate biology/unconscious influenced. A bit naive, a human can not do anything.

Question 48

What developmental stages did Freud propose?

Answer 48

Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting); unresolved conflict may lead to oral fixation, such as smoking, nail-biting, or dependency. Anal Stage (1-3 years): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control; unresolved conflict may cause anal-retentive (overly neat, controlling) or anal-expulsive (messy, reckless) traits. Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Pleasure centers on the genitals, with the Oedipus/Electra complex; unresolved conflict may result in difficulties with authority, over-assertiveness, or sexual identity issues. Latency Stage (6-12 years): Sexual impulses are repressed, focusing on social and intellectual development; unresolved conflict may lead to social awkwardness or immaturity. Genital Stage (12+ years): Sexual desires mature and focus on healthy relationships; unresolved conflict may lead to difficulties with intimacy, commitment, or forming healthy relationships.

Question 49

Behavioural - Skinner

Answer 49

Environement mold us, rewards vs punishment. if you wanna change a behaviour, reward has to be higher than cost. Lack: acknowledgement of human capacity for cognition. We can trascend

Question 50

how do social-cognitive theory view personality

Answer 50

(Bandura) We and us afffect the environement and vis versa Idea of self-efficacy: Capability to succeed Observational learning: We watch others, model to learn

Question 51

Reciprocal Determinism

Answer 51

Bandura; the interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in shaping personality. People perception of self-efficacy (belief they will succeed) will determine their emotion and behaviour towards

Question 52

What did Julian rotter believe it was important factor of personality

Answer 52

Julian Rotter believed that an individual’s sense of control over life events, known as locus of control, was a key factor in personality. Internal Locus of Control: People who believe they control their own fate through effort and decisions tend to be more proactive, confident, and self-motivated. External Locus of Control: Those who believe that external forces (luck, fate, or powerful others) determine their outcomes may feel powerless, anxious, or less motivated to take initiative.

Question 53

What did the research on dogs, by Seligman, teach us?

Answer 53

Martin Seligman’s research on dogs led to the concept of learned helplessness, which explains how repeated exposure to uncontrollable negative events can lead individuals to stop trying to change their situation, even when escape becomes possible. In his experiments, dogs were placed in a situation where they received electric shocks with no way to avoid them. Later, when given the opportunity to escape, many did not even try, having learned that their actions made no difference.

Question 54

How do social-cognitive researchers explore behavior, and what criticism have they faced?

Answer 54

Very objective, experimentally oriented, based on empirical data. Stil ignore genetic and physiological factors. Too mechanic.

Question 55

Personal Control

Answer 55

Nursing home example with plant. give people some control for them to get better, feel better