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PSYC*2650 > PSYC*2650 Chapter 12: Judgment and Reasoning > Flashcards

PSYC*2650 Chapter 12: Judgment and Reasoning Flashcards

1
Q

Which brain area is believed to play a crucial role in the process through which people detect and interpret their emotions?

A

The orbitofrontal cortex

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2
Q

Damage suffered to the orbitofrontal cortex of a patient resulted in the loss of any emotion, leading to difficulty in what other area of cognition?

A

The lack of emotion led to paralysis in decision-making

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3
Q

What is attribute substitution?

A

A commonly used strategy in which a person needs one type of information, but relies instead on a more accessible form

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4
Q

What is a heuristic?

A

A strategy that is reasonably efficient and works most of the time

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5
Q

What is the trade-off when using a heuristic?

A

The individual is choosing to accept some risk of error to gain efficiency

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6
Q

T or F: When using attribute substitution, the judgments made are often correct.

A

True

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7
Q

What are the four main types of attribute substitution?

A
  • Availability heuristic
  • Representativeness heuristic
  • Affect heuristic
  • Effort heuristic
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8
Q

Which attribute substitution heuristic is used to make a frequency estimate?

A

The availability heuristic

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9
Q

How is the availability heuristic used?

A

By assessing the ease with which examples of the object or event come to mind and using the “availability” of these examples as an index of frequency

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10
Q

What is a frequency estimate?

A

An assessment of how often an individual has experienced or encountered a particular object or event

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11
Q

What is the main drawback to using the availability heuristic?

A

Factors other than frequency can influence availability from memory

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12
Q

Which attribute substitution heuristic is used to make judgments about the probability of something being in a category or having certain properties?

A

The representativeness heuristic

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13
Q

How is the representativeness heuristic used?

A

By assessing the resemblance of something to known cases as a way to judge the probability of that thing having the same characteristics

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14
Q

What is the gambler’s fallacy?

A

A pattern of thinking in which the individual assumes that if an independent outcome hasn’t occurred recently, it is more likely to occur on the next opportunity given than that which has been occurring

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15
Q

What is the main drawback to using the representativeness heuristic?

A

Many categories aren’t homogenous

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16
Q

T or F: Representativeness influences the perception of randomness.

A

True

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17
Q

Which attribute substitution heuristic is used to make judgments about the risks and potential benefits associated with an outcome?

A

The affect heuristic

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18
Q

How is the affect heuristic used?

A

By assessing the emotions a felt, while thinking about the various outcomes, to guide a decision

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19
Q

What is the main drawback to using the affect heuristic?

A

The level of emotion associated with an outcome may be influence by factors having little connection to the actual outcome

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20
Q

Which attribute substitution heuristic is often used to make estimates of value?

A

The effort heuristic

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21
Q

How is the effort heuristic used?

A

By assessing the amount of effort spent to gain an outcome, as a way to judge the value of that outcome

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22
Q

What is the main drawback to using the effort heuristic?

A

Value may be independent of effort

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23
Q

What is covariation?

A

The relationship between two variables such that one can be used to predict the other

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24
Q

What does it mean for covariation to be positive?

A
  • An increase in one variable occurs when there is an increase in the other
  • A decrease in one variable occurs when there is a decrease in the other
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25
Q

What does it mean for covariation to be negative?

A

An increase in one variable occurs when there is a decrease in the other, and vice versa

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26
Q

What are illusions of covariation?

A

Incorrect predictions that two variables are related, and that one can be used to predict the other

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27
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

The tendency for people to seek out, and accept without scrutiny, information and statements consistent with their beliefs, but not those that challenge them

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28
Q

What is belief preservation?

A

The tendency to continue endorsing a belief even when disconfirming evidence is undeniable

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29
Q

What is the difference between base-rate information and diagnostic information?

A
  • Base-rate: Information about how frequently something generally occurs
  • Diagnostic: Information about a particular case
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30
Q

T or F: People often ignore diagnostic information and rely on base-rate information to make judgments.

A

False. Other way around.

31
Q

Is base-rate neglect more or less likely if the information is presented in terms of probabilities and proportions?

A

More likely

32
Q

Is base-rate neglect more or less likely if the information is presented in terms of frequencies?

A

Less likely

33
Q

What is a dual-process model?

A

Any model of thinking that claims people have two distinct means of making judgments

34
Q

According to any dual-process model, what are the two ways people tend to make judgments?

A
  • One that is fast and efficient, but prone to error
  • One that is slower and effortful, but more accurate
35
Q

What is type 1 thinking?

A

Judgment and reasoning using strategies that are fast and effortless

36
Q

What is type 2 thinking?

A

Judgment and reasoning using strategies that are slow and require effort

37
Q

Is type 1 or type 2 thinking more prone to error?

A

Type 1

38
Q

When is type 2 thinking used?

A

Only when triggered by certain cues or under certain circumstances

39
Q

T or F: People shift to type 2 thinking when making important judgments

A

False

40
Q

T or F: Attribute substitution and heuristics provide a more accurate judgment when a certain result is due to chance.

A

True

41
Q

Can a person’s education shape the likelihood of them using either type 1 or type 2 thinking?

A

Yes

42
Q

What does a cognitive refection test measure?

A

An individual’s tendency to proceed with judgment in a cautious and sensible fashion

43
Q

T or F: People who do well on cognitive reflection tests are less likely to make errors guided by heuristics.

A

True

44
Q

What is the difference between induction and deduction?

A
  • Induction: Person draws claims from specific pieces of evidence
  • Deduction: Person starts a with claim and asks what evidence is needed to support it
45
Q

T or F: Induction helps keep beliefs in touch with reality.

A

False. Deduction not Induction.

46
Q

What are categorical syllogisms?

A

A logical argument containing two premises and a conclusion in which the premises contain statements about the properties of/relationships between categories, and the conclusion may or may not follow from the premises stated

47
Q

What is a valid syllogism?

A

A syllogism in which the conclusion follows the premises in accord with the rules of logic

48
Q

What is an invalid syllogism?

A

A syllogism in which the conclusion does not follow the premises/is not logically demanded by the premises

49
Q

How do research participants asked to reason about syllogisms perform?

A

Poorly

50
Q

What is belief bias?

A

The tendency to endorse a conclusion if it happens to be something already believed to be true

51
Q

What are conditional statements?

A

A statement in the format “if X, then Y,” with the first part of the statement (X) providing a condition under which the second part (Y) is guaranteed to be true

52
Q

What occurs during is the selection task/four-card task?

A

Participants are presented with four cards that have information on both sides, then they are given a rule that might describe the cards, and their task is to decide which cards must be turned over to find out if the cards follow the rule given

53
Q

How can the information on the cards in a selection task/four-card task trigger more accurate reasoning?

A

By using real world scenarios on either side, rather than abstract content like numbers and letters

54
Q

What are “costs” in decision-making?

A

Consequences that will carry a person farther from their goals

55
Q

What are “benefits” in decision-making?

A

Consequences that will move a person closer to their goals

56
Q

What is the sunk cost fallacy?

A

An irrational tendency to continue an endeavour because of prior time, money, or effort costs

57
Q

T or F: The sunk cost fallacy can be explained by loss aversion.

A

True

58
Q

What does the utility maximization proposal state?

A

That people make decisions by selecting the option with the greatest utility/value

59
Q

In the context of decision-making, what is framing?

A

How the options for a decision, or the decision itself, are described

60
Q

What are the two decision-making patterns demonstrated based on the way a problem is framed?

A
  • Risk seeking
  • Risk averse
61
Q

If the frame casts a choice in terms of losses, do people tend to be risk-seeking or risk-averse?

A

Risk-seeking

62
Q

T or F: People tend to be more risk-seeking when contemplating gains?

A

False. More risk-averse for gains.

63
Q

T or F: People tend to be more risk-averse when contemplating gains?

A

True

64
Q

What is the endowment effect?

A

The tendency of an individual to put a higher value on their current status and possessions simply because they are currently their own

65
Q

What is proposed about reason-based choices?

A

People only make a choice when they detect what they believe to be a persuasive reason for making that choice

66
Q

When given the choice between performing surgery or one of two less risky and equally effective medications, which did physicians tend to choose?

A

Surgery

67
Q

When given the choice between performing surgery or one of two less risky and equally effective medications, why did physicians tend to make the choice they did?

A

Because there was no justification for choosing one medication over the other, but justification could be made for surgery despite it being more risky

68
Q

T or F: People’s decisions are powerfully influenced by emotion.

A

True

69
Q

What are somatic markers?

A

States of the body used in decision-making

70
Q

People with damage to which brain area are unable to use somatic markers when decision-making?

A

The orbitofrontal cortex

71
Q

What is affective forecasting?

A

The process in which a person predicts how they will feel in the future about an object or state

72
Q

T or F: People are very accurate when using affective forecasting to make decisions.

A

False. They are very inaccurate.

73
Q

What is the paradox of choice?

A

The belief that all individuals have choices, but there are often too many, and that is what actually makes people less happy

PSYC*2650 (14 decks)

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