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biology year 12 > Protien Synthesis, Technologies > Flashcards

Protien Synthesis, Technologies Flashcards

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1
Q

Nucleotide

A

-building blocks of DNA -strands held together by hydrogen bonds -a,t 2 bonds -c,g 3 bonds Phosphate group, deoxyribonucleic acid, nitrogenous base

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2
Q

Nitrogenous bass

A

Form a genetic code for a protein -2 types -purines :double ringed a,g -pyrimidines : single ringed c,t

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3
Q

DNA vs rna

A

DNA -double strand -large -double helix -deoxyribose sugar -g,c,t,a Rna - single strand -single helix -ribose sugar -g,c,a,uracil

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4
Q

Genetics

A

Study of mechanisms and the pattern of inheritance through the transmission of coded chemical instructions from one generation to the next

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5
Q

Central dogma

A

DNA - rna = transcription Rna - protein = translation DNA - DNA = replication

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6
Q

DNA replication

A

-semi conservative (little change) -3 stages 1. Unwinding 2. Elongation 3.termination / rewinding -materials needed : DNA , helicase,DNA polymerase, rna polymerase, free nucleotides, ligase

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7
Q

Unwinding of replication

A
  • helicase unzips the long molecule by breaking the hydrogen bonds (uncoils the DNA ) - junction between unwound single strands and double helix is replication fork - replication fork moves along the parental DNA strand so there is a continuous unwinding of DNA
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8
Q
  1. Elongation of replication
A

-nucleoside triphosohates add energy to add nucleotides -in nucleus free nucleotides attach to exposed base with the help of rna polymerase -form new identical chains -enzymes only bind in 5 to 3 direction Leading and lagging strand

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9
Q

Leading strand replication

A

Synthesised continuously in the 5 to 3 direction by DNA polymerase

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10
Q

Lagging strand

A

-constructed in fragments and then joined -rna polymerase synthesises a short rna primer which is later removed -DNA polymerase 3 extends rna primer with short lengths of complimentary DNA to make Okazaki fragments -DNA polymerase 1 removes rna primer by digesting it and replaces it with DNA -Ligase seals the gaps between nucleotides and fragments into continuous strand that can now rewind

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11
Q
  1. Termination /rewinding of replication
A

-2 new strands rewind into their double helix shape -one parental and one new strand -one strand is conserved from one generation to another

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12
Q

Genes in eukaryotic cells

A

-nucleus -mitochondria -chloroplasts

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13
Q

Genes in prokaryotic cells

A

-large circular chromosomes -plasmids (replicate independently)

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14
Q

Karyotype

A

-picture of chromosomes from humans cell arranged in pairs by size -first 22 pairs called autosomes -last pair sex chromosomes -xx female -Xy male

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15
Q

Centromere

A

Constriction in a chromosome required for movement during cell division

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16
Q

Chromatid

A

Daughter strands of a duplicated chromosome that are joined by a centromere

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17
Q

protein synthesis

A

process in which dan is transcribed into mrna and then translate int amino acid sequences that make up proteins

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18
Q

genetic code

A
  • code is read in a sequence of 3 bases - tripler on dna - codons on mrna - anticodon on trna
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19
Q

transcription

A
  • first stage - occurs in the nucleus - helices unzips the dna strand breaking the h bond exposing the triplet on a single template strand - mrna is synthesised by rna polymerase - rna polymerase attaches to the start of the gene (promoter) to initiate transcription - mrna forms from free nucleotides by complementary base pairing, replacing T with a U - proceeds the 5 to 3 direction until it reaches the stop sequence
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20
Q

post transcriptional modification

A
  • each gene use produce more then one protein - introns are removed after transcription - the way the eons are spliced and number varied creating variation - this allows for a diverse range of proteins
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21
Q

translation

A
  • second stage - determines the order in which amino acids are joined to make proteins - occurs in cytoplasm - 3 stages 1. initiation 2. elongation 3. termination
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22
Q

imitation translation

A
  • 2 ribosomal sub units attach to a specific nucleotide sequence on the mrna strand next to the start codon aug where translation will start
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23
Q

elongation translation

A
  • amino acids are added 1 by 1 by trna as the ribosome moves along the mrna a polypeptide chain forms between adjacent amino acids
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24
Q

termination translation

A
  • occurs when the ribosome reaches a stop codon - binds to the stop codon releasing the polypeptide chain - ribosomal unit falls off so they can be recycled - many ribosomes can work on one mrna (polyribose)
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25
Q

polyribose

A
  • speeds up rate of reaction - multiple ribosomes are working on the one piece of mrna
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26
Q

protein structure

A
  • 4 levels 1. primary : the sequence of amino acids in 1 linear polypeptide chain 2. secondary : the shape of the polypeptide chain 3. tertiary : the overall 3d shape caused by folding 4. quaternary : 2-4 polypeptide chains joined as a functional unit
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27
Q

denaturation of proteins

A
  • loss of proteins 3d structure - bonds in the protein structure break - result in loss of function - irreversible
28
Q

mrna

A
  • messenger rna - copies and transfers the dna code from the nucleus to cytoplasm - complementary to the dana code
29
Q

trna

A
  • transfer rna - carries amino acids to the growing peptide chain - one end carries the anticodon
30
Q

comparing transcription and dna replication

A

similar - dna unwinds free floating nucleotides bind to the strand transcription: only small part of dna used - enzymes involved in joining rna nucleotides - single stranded rna produced replication: whole dna used - dna polymerase not rna - double stranded produced

31
Q

ribosomes

A
  • made up of 2 sub units, small and large - can be free in the cytoplasm of associated with the endoplasmic reticulum
32
Q

protein synthesis in prokaryotic cells

A
  • no nucleus - transcription and translation occur in cytoplasm - rna polymerase binds directly to a promoter region on the dna to begin transcription - mrna synthesis continues until the rna polymerase encounters a termination sequence at which it stops
33
Q

epigenetics

A

the study of chemical modifications to gene function that are not due to dna sequence changes, eg methylation and acetylation

34
Q

epigenome

A
  • chemical tags on genes that turn them on and off
35
Q

histones

A
  • proteins in which dna coils around to avoid detangling
36
Q

methylation

A
  • silences gene expression off - addition of methyl groups to DNA - compacts dna, winding onto histones - stops transcription meaning that certain genes aren’t expressed and are turned off
37
Q

acetylation

A
  • activate gene expression on - addition of acetyl groups to DNA - loosens dna on the histones - makes transcription easier
38
Q

cause of modifications (methylation and acetylation)

A
  • can be inherited (nature) - accumulate through a persons life - result of environment /lifestyle e.g. smoking (nurture)
39
Q

genomic imprinting

A
  • an imprinted allele is activated only if it is inherited from 1 parent and other allele is inactivated
40
Q

identical twins

A
  • as they get older they look less alike - identical genotypes - accumulate phenotype differences as they get older - due to epigenetics
41
Q

dna technologies

A

the use of living things to make new products or systems

42
Q

genetic engineering

A
  • artificially adding gene or changing the way genes wor
43
Q

restriction enzymes

A
  • act as molecular scissors cutting dna molecules into restriction fragments - different enzymes have different sites - cuts form sticky or blunt ends sticky: leave some nucleotide exposed blunt: no overlapping strands
44
Q

ligation

A
  • joining dna ends using dna ligase 1. 2 pieces are cut using the same restriction enzymes 2. dna fragments are attached to each other 3. sticky ends are attached to each other annealing - dna ligase joins them together recombinant dna: joined dna of two different origins
45
Q

str

A
  • short tandem repeats - found throughout genome - 2-5 base pairs e.g. ca or catga - used in gel electrophoresis, more accurate then using restriction enzymes
46
Q

pcr

A

multiplys copies of dna - Polymerase chain reaction 1. denaturing:seperates dna strands by heating to 95 for one min, breaking the hydrogen bonds 2. annealing: primers bond to dna cooled to 55 3. extension: thermally stable dna binds to the primers on each side of the dna strand making complementary strands using free nucleotides 70

47
Q

benefits of transferring genes

A
  • nutritional benefit - improved crop yield - make herbicide resistant plants (more environmentally sustainable - new products
  • ethical and doesnt require killing
  • inexpensive easy to produce
  • fast to produce large amounts
  • decrease use of pesticide

-

48
Q

concerns of transferring genes

A
  • lack of testing - irreversible - reduce lifespan - unnatural - uncontrolled spread of transgenes
49
Q

VNTRs

A
  • variable nucleotide tandem repeats, more then 5 base sequences
50
Q

gene therapy

A
  • replace defective genes in the sufferer delivering normal genes
51
Q

transgenic organisms

A
  • moving genes from 1 species to another
52
Q

virus

A
  • hijack the cell - shoot their dna into the nucleus or the cell
53
Q

vector

A

used to copy genes or transfer to target cells

54
Q

examples of gene engineering

A
  • bt cotton, kills caterpillers - golden rice, produces vitamin A
55
Q

dna sequencing - Sanger method

A
  • finds the exact order of bases in dna - uses premature termination dna synthesis by adding labeled modified nucleotides (ddNTPs) - oxygen to stop further synthesis of complementary dna 5 ingredients: single strand dna, dna primer, dna polymerase, free nucleotides, modified nucleotides 1. dna undergoes pcr steps 2. dna primer is annealed to the single stranded dna 3. dna samples are divided into 4 separate tubes 4.dna fragments of possible lengths form 5. fragments sorted by size using gel electrophoresis 6. dna bands visualised by computer systems 7.dna sequence can then be read 8.sequence of original dna is formed
56
Q

transferring genes

A
  • plasmid vector - liposome vector - viral vector
57
Q

liposome vector

A
  • liposomes are small spheres that surround the membrane composed of phospholipid bilayers - liposomes join to organisms and a gene of interest can be inserted inside the liposome - used to insert foreign dna into cells cultured in petri dishes
58
Q

plasmid vector

A
  1. isolate the gene, cut genes from cell with restriction enzymes 2.remove plasmid from bacterium 3.cut plasmid with some restriction enzyme to produce sticky ends 4. insert gene in plasmid and place the plasmid in the bacteria 6. bacterium multiplys in broth and produces human proteinsmkaing multiple copies of the desired gene
59
Q

viral vector

A
  • outside the body - steps 1-4 of plasmid vector but virus not bacteria 5. recombinant dna is packaged into virus 6.assembeled virus injects recombinant dna into human cell 7.virus replicate spreading virus genes 8.put into inhaler, consumed into the lungs which invade the cells dropping off the virus
60
Q

prokaryotes

A
  • no nucleus
  • pili, capsule, plasmid, cytoplasm, ribosome
61
Q

eukaryotes

A
  • membrane bound organelles
  • nucleus present
  • cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria
62
Q

comparison of prokaryote ad eukaryote

A

p:

  • less dna
  • in the cytoplasm
  • circular dna
  • plasmids
  • dna consists of exons

E:

  • more dna
  • in the nucleus
  • linear dna
  • no plasmids
  • dna consists of exons and introns
63
Q

recombinant dna steps

A
  • the foreign dna and plasmid are cut with the same restriction enzyme
  • restrictino enzyme creates sticky ends that allows the foreign dna and plasmid to anneal
  • ligase glues the annealed fragments together
  • the recombinant plasmid is then placed back into the bacterial cell
  • bacteria are then grown to replicate and produce the desired protein
  • protein is extracted and isolated for use
64
Q

gene cloning

A
  1. plasmids are extended from the bacteria by rupturing their cell walls
  2. the same restriction enzyme is used to cut the plasmid dna and the dna gene is inserted
  3. dna liage binds the foreign dna fragemtn / target gene into the plasmid dna
  4. recombinant plasmids are added to a bacteria culture
  5. the plasmids replicate in the process of growth and division numerous copies are made
65
Q

golden rice

A
  • vitamin A
  • beleived it could solve vitamin A deficiencies
  • the plasmid is inserted into a bacteria which is mixed with the rice plant embryos
  • plant embryos are transformed
66
Q

bt cotton

A
  • modified to produce a pesticide
  • cotton plants are susceptible to caterpillars
  • bt is a soil bacterium that produces a gene that is topic to caterpillars
  • the cotton plants grow and a protein is produced which kills the caterpillars that eat the cotton plant
67
Q
A

biology year 12 (23 decks)

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