Production Systems 4 - 7 Flashcards
What are the 2 main type of camelids in australia and what hump do they have and where are they from
1) Camelus dromedarius (single hump) - Dromedary (in Australia) - originally Africa
2) Camelus bactrianus (double hump) - Bactrian - originally East Asia
Around how many camels in Australia and what are they used for and what makes them good for this
Greater than 300,000 camels in Australia
“ship of the desert”
- able to travel long distances without large quantities of water - australian desert
- feed poor quality roughage
- able to carry moderately heavy loads
- move quite quickly when required
ALSO camel racing - australia and middle east
Camel meat - export
Tourism, pets, dong for fuel, grazing rough country
what is the average lifespan of a camel, weight, of male and female, carrying capacity, speed and how much they drink
lifespand - 30-50 years weight - male - 800-1000Kg female - 600-800Kg carrying capacity - 1/2 bodyweight speed - normal 5Km/h up to 25Km/h (racing) drink - 20-30L per day
Structures within the camelid GI anatomy
- functional separation of 4 stomachs but not fully anatomical separation
• Upper lip is “split” by labial cleft - Lips do grabbing rather than tongue
• Similar eructation method to ruminants (bicarbonate as buffer)
• Fungi, bacteria, protozoa in C1, C2 - effectively can digest food as a ruminant
• Glandular area in C1 – absorption, secretions
Llama what used for
- predominantly used as a pack animal in south america
- fibre production (poorer than alpaca)
- guard animal
- meat
- kept as pet - small numbers
Alpaca lifespan, gestation length, stages of development, what used
15-20 years 335 days ○ Tuis (Adolescents) ○ Hembras (Adult Females) ○ Machos (Adult Males) ○ Crias (babies) - smaller than llama, selected for quality fleece
Australian Alpaca Industry
- moderate risk: what is the motivation for starting the business - enthusiast of alpacas and possibly not as motivated for profit - possibly spend more money on the alpaca
- 80% are herds less than 10 - small breeders
- large variation in prices due to breeding values can be up to tens of thousands
What are the 2 types of alpacas, what is the most common, what fleece is like
1) Huacaya (wua’ki’ya)
- Most common in Australia
- Soft, fluffy looking animal (fleece has similar growth pattern to a Merino)
2) Suri (soo’ree)
- Less common
- Fleece has growth pattern more like a “ Leicester Sheep (long, pencil like locks)
how do you shear an alpaca
- they are tied up (front and hind legs)
- low % grease
- once per year usually in spring
- 1.5-4kg fleece
What is the DSE rating of an alpaca
- of a large wether - 1-1.2 DSE
- if pregnant increased and around 2 DSE lactating
what are the main disease problems in alpacas and what vaccinated again
- less likely to get fly strike compared to sheep (lower grease content)
- internal parasites
- fighting teeth - removal
- trimming tow nails
Vaccinations - tetanus, pulpy kidney, black leg, black disease, malignant oedema (5 in 1) ]
- Johnes disease
Alpaca gestation length, what induces ovulation, how long does mating last, what position, pregnancy testing
- 335 days (11months)
- physical act and studs ogling noise induces ovulation
- female either receptive or not, male at any time
- lasts for 5 to 20 mins and done sitting down
- pregnancy check - failure to sit, spit-off, ultrasound
what is the weaning age and what is the mating age for male alpacas
- 3-6 months of age
- males reach sexual maturity at 1-3 years of age
- generally over 45kg and 12 months
fleece values compared to sheep and how to get best price
- less than merino sheep
- white more valuable than colour
- better not to sell on open market but get contract with company
what is gross income determined and influenced by
- Raw amount (kg/head) x Yield(carcase yield) x price($/kg) = value ($/head)
○ Influenced genetics, nutrition, health (vet contribution)
○ Health can effect price - large mastitis, large cell counts, reduced price ALSO sheep with flystrike decrease wool quality and price
what are some variable costs with farming
- need to spend money on but can change amount
○ Animal health - know how to reduce with strategic preventive vaccinations, - Falling back on emergency treatment is generally more expensive such as drench capsules put into sheep stomachs, takes time and is expensive
○ Supplementary feeding
○ Management costs (labour)
what is the equation for gross margin and net farm income equations
Gross margin ($/DSE) = gross income - variable costs Net farm income ($/ha) = (gross margin x stocking rate) - fixed costs
What are the 3 products from sheep and goats, what is the largest market at the moment
1) milk - not large in Aus, not much commercial processing so easier to get outbreak of disease
2) meat, lamb and mutton
3) fibre - wool, skins - mohair and cashmere
lamb and mutton, at what age, what value, what breeds
lamb - less than 1 year generally 4-5months (suckers just off mum)
- higher value, more flavoursome and more tender
mutton - older animals, reach end of breeding age, lower value, high price of meat for even merinos
wool what breed, when shear at what weight, how priced
- merino sheep - fine fibre diameter, white (easy to die)
○ Shorn once a year, 4-6kg at single shearing
○ Start with greasy wool and end with clean wool which Is multiplied by price ($/kg)
○ Pricing - fibre diameter of the wool determines 2/3rds of price - driven by genetics - Disease and nutrition also influences fibre diameter
○ Weight of wool - highly influenced by health - parasitism
why would you transition between wool to meat and how
- Value of wool has gone down due to synthetic fibres so may choose to transition to meat producing however need to change genetics but also increase susceptibility to disease as increase amount of young animals and breeding ewes which are most susceptible to worms
goat what products produced
1) milk
2) meat - boar goat
3) fibre
1. cashmere -very fine, produce small amounts per year
2. mohair - angora goats - shorn twice a year get 3kg/shearing
what is the main place for sheep in australia and what are the 3 zones determined by rainfall
Southern Australia as northern have lots of parasites
- pastoral zone - Inland SA, NSW, Queensland - low rainfall - low stocking rates - sheep grazing native shrub - meat production
- Closer to the coast - sheep cereal/wheat zone - sheep fit into this production system as sheep can graze the grain and then the leftover - can use for wool or meat
- High rainfall area - where large amounts of rain and therefore feed - prime meat sheep as well as wool - also get dairy products - land price increase
goats where situated and what do with them
milk and meat production up eastern seaboard
- wild goats from pastroal zone and export to the middle east
what are the 3 ways you can farm merinos
1) traditional merino wool enterprise
2) meat-producing enterprise (crossbred system)
3) dual purpose farm
A traditional merino wool enterprise what to cross, what to sell, and raming percentage
- Merino ewes cross merino ram - purebred merino progeny with very fine fibre dimeter
- Sell wool but also meat with cull aged animals (ewes, weathers)
- Only keep 1% rams (1 ram to 100 merinos)
merinos in a meat-producing enterprise what cross with what, products
- Merino ewe cross meat breed ram - crossbred progeny (first cross lamb - do not keep for breeding therefore not self-replacing flock)
○ Need to still continue producing merino ewes from traditional merino wool enterprise - Produce lambs, wool (first cross ewes or lambs), skins, meat (culls)
- Can keep first cross ewes cross with terminal breed sire (different meat breed ram generally dorset horn or poll dorset) - terminal prime 2nd cross lambs (high carcase weights, fast growing) - 2 generations of hybrid vigour
○ Generally buy the first-cross ewes in
merinos in a dual purpose farm what cross, what is the benefits
- Mate a proportion of merino ewes with merino rams to maintain self-replacing flock
- Mate others to meat breed ram and sell them all for meat or first-cross lamb producers
- Allow flexibility - if meat price go up breed more ewes to meat ram than merino ram and vice versa
What are two other ways to farm sheep without merinos positives and negatives and breed used
1) dual purpose breed
South African Mutton Merino - merino selected for carcase weight, growth rate
- problem produce moderate milk and meat
- avoid risk of introducing disease, control genetics
2) meat only - exclusive focus on meat, shedding gene - Dorper, Awassi
what is the biggest driver of stocking rate in annual management calendar and when
choosing time of lambing/kidding
merino - lambing 3-4months before pasture dries off
finished lambs - 5 months before pasture dries off
autumn lambing only when want 10months of growth for lambs - problem with malnourished pregnant ewes.
spring -
how long mate for with lambs, why, how many cycles, why not longer
Mate for 5 weeks (2 oestrus cycles)
- 75% conception/cycle = 95% conception overall
- Don’t mate for longer as spread out ages of the lambs so holds up management procedures want to do with the lambs
when does lambing occur, when does marking occur, what is included with marking and at what age are the lambs
august - september
marking 2 weeks after lambing
- First vaccination, castration, tail docking (at 3rd tail joint as need tail covers vulva), mulesing
- Count for reproductive performance: marking% = no. lambs ÷ no. ewes mated
Typically get 70-150 lambs per 100 ewes
- 5-6 weeks old on average
what vaccinations are given during lamb marking
○ 5 in 1 vaccine against clostridial disease OR 6 in 1 clostridia + cheesy gland (caseous lymphadenitis) - booster at weaning (4 weeks later)
○ PLUS ‘Gudair’ vaccine: Ovine Johne’s disease (Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis)
what is imprint feeding when occurs
teach animals to eat supplementary feed
most effective way is to supplementary feed mothers and let lambs learn off them
about november
at what age are merino and meat lambs generally weaned, why and what occurs at this point
- About 12 (merino)-16+ (meat) weeks after lambing starts
- earlier for merino as mothers don’t produce much milk, also youngest will be 6 weeks and therefore have a functional rumen
- meat - better mothers, better milk so stay longer
- give booster vaccination and drench - support growth post-weaning with good quality pasture
what occurs with goat kids, and why
○ Removed from mothers at birth - ‘snatch reared’ for disease control
○ Prevents them suckling from colostrum or milk that may be carrying caprine arthritis and encephalitis virus (CAEV)
- If herd tested negative then don’t have to
○ Need to pasteurise the colostrum from doe to kill virus but not destroy the critical antibodies needed by the kid
lamb sales at what age do they start, when and how
- meat lambs before 2-tooth from 16 weeks (when reach target weight) and before summer so don’t need supplementary feed
- some farmers sell ‘store’ lambs (unfattened) for someone else to finish
- higher rainfall favours finishes
what are the 2 strategic treatments for lambs
1) summer drenching winter worms come from late spring and autumn pasture contamination so give 2 summer drenches
2) apply fly chemical to sheep in early spring to reduce following fly generations
cast for age sheep, at what age generally occurs and when
- generally sold before pasture decreases so in january
- optimum age to keep is up to 6 years and older ewes generally mated to terminal sire
what are the benefits of having wethers and so what does more weathers = and more ewes =
○ More worm-resistant ○ Able to be grazed harder ○ Produce more wool ○ Less labour-intensive more weathers = more wool income - still need ewes to replace stock more ewes = more meat income - more lambs
What occurs before joining for sheep
- Ewes need to be in condition score 3 at mating (not too fat but good fertility)
○ Monitor CS pre-joining - measure at least 6 weeks before so change make changes if necessary - Rams - breeding soundness exam
○ Measure scrotal circumference - the larger generally more ewes can get pregnant
what are the 3 monitoring that needs to occur in sheep farming
1) faecal egg counts
- monitor worm egg counts every 6 weeks from autumn - decide on drenching
- ewes sometimes drenched pre-lambing if FEC high
2) condition score of pregnant ewes - winter
3) blowfly activity - increases in spring, do they need prophylaxis - or crutching (pre or post shearing) or wigging - wool removal from face
what are the factors to consider when deciding the best time to shear
Animal Health - feed requirements/stocking rate - flystrike (fleecerot) - post-shearing hypothermia - neonatal survival Wool Quality - stable strength/ position of break - Fibre diameter - major determinant of the price - Fleece weight
when can’t you shear sheep, and what occurs in summer with fleece
- throughout lambing and up to weaning as well as joining
- fleece - good reflector of heat, if don’t excercise high heat tolerance
why don’t you shear in winter
Sheep are sensitive to cold 2 months after shearing so not in winter or autumn
increases feed requirements up to 75%
selling cast for age, what time is bad for shearing and what time is good
- want to sell mid-late summer and want wool length not long so want to sell soon after shearing
- issue is autumn
- summer fits better
what is the attraction for blow flies and what are the 3 flystrike types
- Protein + moisture e.g. ○ Urine, faeces stuck on longer wool ○ Fleecerot, other dermatitis (along its back) • Flystrike types -1) Body 2) breech (backside) 3) pizzle (penis under belly)
what is the main cause of body strike
Can start of in pizzle (urine attract) but then dermatitis on the back can attract the flies
what is the relationship between wool and flystrike and how does this effect shearing time
- Lower the growth of wool the lower the risk of getting flystrike
- 8 + months of wool length high increase in risk of flystrike
- if area with large flystrike shearing near or before flystrike season generally spring, summer or autumn (depending on area)
- other alternatives is crutching however labour costs
what occurs with bacterial dermatitis, when most at risk and how to reduce
- Exudate produced by dermatitis attrative to flystrike
- Cannot be prevented by ringing or crutching
- Therefore need to shear to reduce risk
- Generally occurs with medium wool (6-8months) - needs to stay chronically wet, short wool dries quickly, long wool generally doesn’t get wet right down to the bottom of the wool
- Can breed to reduce likelihood or can ensure short wool in these time
when is Hypothermia/Exposure - post shearing most likely to occur and how to reduce risk
- Cold snap in summer - if occurs in your environment then probably try to avoid shearing just before this time
- If doesn’t occur often just watch the forecast and if just shorn sheep (less than 2 weeks) then move into shearing or other sheds
does shearing affect lamb survival
no - as ewes may be more likely to get shelter and bring lambs therefore however increases feed requirements before lambing - outweigh as have adverse on lamb survival
How does staple strength, POB, fleece weight and diameter fit in with shearing times
smaller diameter in summer as nurition decreases
POB in autumn also one in spring as spending energy on foetus
fleece weight - autumn shearing grow more but more dirty
fibre diameter - broader fibre in autumn
what are the main reasons wildlife cases occur, what is the general outcome
1) Loss of habitat
- Human space and wildlife space overlap in many areas
2) Introduction of exotic species
- generally if animal is picked up by humans it is gravely sick - 98% don’t survive the first week
what is considered wildlife in Australia and what is the main aim with them
any animal or a vertebrate species that is indigenous to Australia or its waters, any invertebrate listed as threatened, all deer and non-indigenous quail, pheasants and partridges
- aim is to rehabilitate and release into the wild
What isn’t considered wildlife and should we treat them
Introduced species
- rabbits or foxes - illegal to keep rabbit in queensland
- can treat them but shouldn’t be as they are pests
who is responsible to pay for wildlife
1) veterinarians - main ones who pay, good business to be seen as compassionate, by law have to provide pain relief and first aid
2) government - don’t pay because vets will
3) public - don’t want to be asked by may donate
4) individuals - wildlife as pets, benefactors
Who is allowed to hold wildlife
- veterinarians diagnosis and treatment, can take animals off the public
- licensed wildlife shelters
- wildlife licence holders
- specific permission for collection from wild
- special law for certain species
define rehabilitate, reintroduce, introduce and translocate
Rehabilitate = restore to a former way of life Reintroduce = establish in former habitat Introduce = establish in a new habitat Translocate = move to a new location
how does monitoring of wildlife occur
- reproductive control - vasectomy (don’t want to effect hormone levels) also female hormone control - not permanent
- wildlife culling
- wildlife harvesting
- habitat assessment
why does the bee industry exist, what is its value and what is the main honeybee
Pollination!
- Around 65% of horticultural and agricultural crops require honeybee pollination
- Value in order of $4-6 billion
- European Honey bee (Apis mellifera) - our main honey bee in Australia - exotic species
how many species of native bee are there and why aren’t they farmed
- > 1,500 species
- Nearly all solitary bees
○ raise young in log hollows or ground burrows
○ Single female builds individual nest: do not store honey!
what is the main research group for the bee industry
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) - Australian Government - Honeybee R&D program - 2015 Honey Bee and Pollination Program ○ 5 Year research and development plan
what is the main threat to the bee industry, where found and what does it do, how treat
parasitic mite Varroa destructor
- Highly invasive
- Australia free of Varroa
○ 2 nests found infected in Townsville in 2016 - varrora jacobsoni (not the highly invasive strain) - nests destroyed
- Attaches to bee and sucks haemolymph
○ Vector for viruses
○ Most colonies would die without acaracidal treatment (e.g. Synthetic pyrethroids
what is the other disease that can cause issues for the bee industry and what is in place to detect bee issues
Colony Collapse Disorder
- multiple stressors
- bee live hives early leading to premature death
National Bee Pest Surveillance Program (NBPSP)
list some roles of veterinarians in the bee industry
Diagnosis and treatment of diseases in bees - Notifiable
• Prescribing of veterinary medicines
• Sampling and testing of hives and bee product- Residues
• Planning and implementation of good farming practices
- ‘herd health’
• Veterinary advice and management for apiarists
• Technical advice for national pest and disease management program
• Biosecurity protocols
• National Sentinel Hive Program
• Inspectors for AQIS
what is the voluntary international agreement between countries on standards about international trade of wild animals and plants called
CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Flora and Fauna
What does the Zoo and Aquarium Association do
- over 90 institutions
- integrated species management
- conservation programs
- education
- training
• set of standards and guidelines - code of ethics
- Accreditation
What are the positive values of zoos
Education - There is a disconnect between humans and animals so if able to see animals physically maybe more inclined to care about the animals and get involved in conservation • Contribution to species conservation - Within the organisation - In the field - Research in health and ill-health - Biodiversity conservation • Recreation
what are the negative values of zoos
Stamp collecting only • Animal welfare concerns - Prisons? - Behavioural - Enclosure design • Importance/value of research?
private wildlife parls, petting zoos and childrens farms what are they for and problems
Economic pressures often great
- Visitor numbers overriding factor in many decisions - should be animal health
• Visited for entertainment - holiday activity
- Introduction for those with no contact with animals
what are some roles for veterinarians in wildlife
• Zoo Veterinarian • Consultancy • Government - quarantine - transport - trade - wildlife monitoring
illegally kept pets what is the value, what to do if presented with pet and concerns
- Non-native animals
- Monetary value of illegal trade in animals
○ US $6-10 Billion per annum
○ Only exceeded by the trafficking of arms and drugs - What to do if presented with illegal Pet?
○ Not illegal to treat, no mandatory reporting, moral issues - try to convince client that keeping an illegal pet is not wise - Concerns:
○ Ecological impact if escaped e.g. Red-eared slider turtles
○ Introduction of exotic diseases
what is some specialised handling equipment for snakes
- Crush Cages
- Blow Pipes
- Prod Sticks - glue syringe on the end of the stick - intramuscular injection
- Dart Guns - mostly silent
- Snake sticks/tubes - head pinning technique (not so good for positive experiences with humans - more placid) older now use tubing - gently get snake to move into plastic tube, put tube along edge of the floor as snake will want to feel edge of environment
- Hoop nets
- Net guns
what country has the highest number of cows and what country produces the most milk per cow (kg/head)
India - 38 millions cows only 1000Kg/head
Australia - 1.6 million cows but 5,900Kg/head
where are australian exports of milk going
south-east Asia
Japan and China - now exporting a lot of our heifers and setting up their own diary industries
what are the biggest dairy exporters in the world
1) Europe
2) New Zealand
3) USA
4) Australia
how are dairy farms changing
- farms have consolidated
- more cows per farm
- less farms
- more milk per cow per year
- less pasture based more mixture between pasture and supplementary feeding
- moving towards northern system - TMR (total mixed ration)
what are the products from dairy cows
milk - drinking, manufactoring, powder, cheese (jersey milk generally better as higher in fat), colostrum, nutraceuticals
what are the main 2 companies that own dairy products and what brands within
1) fonterra - bega, ski
2) A2
What are Herd Improvement Co-operatives
People that sell semen to the farmers
- AI technicians and do the artificial insemination
- Advice about how well are they doing in terms of fertility
what is the difference between a abattoir and knackery
Abattoirs - - Processing plants - Animals killed there - For human consumption Knackery - Not for human consumption - Pick up cows that have died on the farm
What are the main industry and government bodies in dairy
- dairy Australia
- Gardiner Foundation (VIC)
- Australian Dairy Industry Council - Australian Diary farmers Ltd
list inputs in dairy industry
1) cows
2) people
3) land
4) fertiliser - superphosphate (phosphorus), potash (potassium), urea (nitrogen)
5) water - irrigation, farmer has own channels of larger ones
6) supplementary feeds - ration depends on point of lactation
7) equipment
What are the 3 types of dairies and characteristics of each
1) walk-through - quite old, up to 6 cows at a time
2) herringbone - cows walk in and funnel themselves, need to train cows
3) rotary - manually putting on cups however automatically come off and auto feed, cows walk in and out - lots of training
Features of Victorian Dairy Industry - regional distribution and general stocking rate
1) western district (dryland)
2) gippsland (dryland in main)
3) Northern Victoria (irrigation)
2. 5 to 3 cows per hectare
Features of Victorian Dairy Industry - seasonal calving
- calve for about 10 weeks (spring or autumn)
- more having split calving pattern - majority in spring some in autumn
AI in dairy cows - how long last, what else do, and how
6-8 weeks
- Moped up by a bull
- Genetics is important - spend time choosing the sire
Bulls -
- Need a good team of bulls - need the right number
- Number depends on how many cows still trying to get into calf - is AI working
- 1 per 20-30 - 1 per 30 minimum
dry cows when occur and why, also what is the opposite and why occurs
- 8 weeks before calving
- Enough when calving in good body condition
- Carry over cows - milked all the way through - usually because haven’t gotten into calf
What are the 3 different styes of calving in dairy industry
1) seasonal calving
2) year-round calving
3) split calving
seasonal and year-round calving where used and why
1) Seasonal calving
- Cows lactation peaks around spring so high pasture availability
- August - September
2) Year-round calving
- Feedlot systems
- Irrigated farms - rainfall doesn’t determine pasture growth
- Some of your herd in peak production at all times
- Seasonal milk prices - lots of milk around peak (spring) as cow dried off in Jun/July so shortage which increases the price of milk
split calving why occurs and what problem can arise
- Generally 2 calving - 2 herds
○ Spring and autumn period - during April, may, June the autumn group is at peak production so increase price - Can also get batches - 3,4,5
- Some people did this when cows didn’t get in calf in spring so put in autumn herd and then getting a sub herd with low fertility as reason didn’t get into calf at the beginning
how long after cows and heifers start calving should you intervene if birth hasn’t occurs
4-6 hours
benefits and disadvantages on seasonal production systems in dairy calving
Benefits – - make use of available feed (grass growth) - utilise different prices throughout year - efficient utilisation of labour Disadvantages of a non-pregnant cow – - cull cow - carrying empty dry cow over - milking a stale cow over dry period - genetic improvement of herd halted
what are the negatives of year round production systems
Reduced repro performance not as dramatic as in seasonal herds BUT –
- prolonged inter-calving interval leads to
- reduced production (cow spends less time at peak)
- reduced numbers calves / lifetime (less genetic gain)
- work load spread over whole year
what is involution
post calving contraction of uterus & expulsion of fluid & membranes (about 30 days)
- Needs that time before cow can go back into calf
- If delayed by twins, RFM (retained foetal membranes), dystocia, infection, mastitis then ovarian activity & thus cycling delayed
what factors are important to pre-weaning health and what are the 3 Qs
1) successful passive transfer
Quickly, Quality, Quantity
2) adequate nutrition
3) environment
what is scours and how does it occur often in calves
diarrhoea
- too much milk when gut isn’t developed for the quantity or infection
what are some laws involving bobby calves
- at least 4 days old
- bright, alert, strong
- fed within 6 hours sale
- umbilical cord dry and shrivelled
- must have electronic tag
- observe withholding periods with drugs
what are the 3 ways to wean calves from best to worst
1) gain- concetrate intake
- 0.75-1.5Kg/day
2) weight of calf - fresion 70-80Kg, Jersey 50-60Kg
3) set age - 6-8 weeks (early) - 12 weeks
when to calve a heifer, what is ideal weight for mating, what age, what age calve and how many days later conceive
- heifers calve slightly earlier within the herd so not bullied by cows and transition into milking shed without many cows
- 15 months
- jersy cows - 300-320Kg
- Fresian - 380-400Kg
- calves at 24 months
- conceives 83 days later
Vaccination of dairy cattle what is the main one, how administered and the other optional one
- 7 in 1 -> leptospirosis - abortion and zoonoses
- Subcutaneous
- BVD possible vaccination
