Production Systems - 1 - 3 Flashcards
what is meant by a closed system, give an example
don’t bring on live animals to the farm or animals have been quarantined first
- laboratory and some intensive systems
what are the 5 levels of focus
1) Individual animal
2) Herd or flock (family pets)
3) Regional or statewide - local industry
4) National
5) International
what does the farmer control in terms of money and what don’t they
some control over CoP (cost of production) - amount of food, staff costs, etc.
less control on income as external forces control prices
how are sheep/wheat used together in australian systems
- Crops may be grazed during winter and even early spring
- They are then harvested in early summer
- Sheep can then graze the stubble over summer - when nutrition is low
- Allows increase in sheep stocking rate with minimal reduction in overall grain production.
research why do most industries have a research body and where does money come from
1) research can produce significant returns on financial investment
2) Research is vital to maintaining industry competitiveness
Some industry funds are matched by public monies (eg. some funding to MLA and AWI)
Organization of industry and collection of money as a levy when sell animal
- money sometimes matched by government funding
CRCs what are they, what do they aim to achieve and give an example
Cooperative Research Centers - experts coming together to conduct research
1. build critical mass in research ventures between end-users and researchers
2. to tackle clearly-articulated, major challenges for the end-users
3. pursue solutions to these challenges that are innovative, of high impact and capable of being effectively deployed by the end-users
Current examples – Dairy futures
What are the two regulatory bodies of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals
FDA (Food and Drug Administration), APVMA (Australian pesticides and veterinary medicine association)
peak councils - agro-political bodies what is their role and give an example
- Representative structure to liaise and influence government or regulatory bodies for benefits of producers
- Improve communication with other peak bodies (eg Sheep meats council and Cattle council in Australia)
- Funding model – compulsory v. voluntary levy - can make large difference to the funding model
What is the gestation length for each of these species bovine ovine caprine (goat) cervine (deer) equine
bovine - 283 ovine - 145 caprine - 150 cervine - 250 equine 336
gestation length for each of these species canine feline avian porcine
canine - 63
feline - 63
avian - 22
porcine - 115
List and describe the 5 main impacts of reproduction on a farm
1) maintain herd size - replace dead and cast for age animals
2) allows for genetic selection for male and female - higher selection pressure
3) impacts on management - increase feed and attention pregnant and lactating animals
4) impacts on production - must give birth to produce milk (dairy)
5) impacts on animal health - sexual transmissible disease, increase risk disease during or after pregnancy
define prolificacy
- Number of progeny per pregnancy (or laying season)
eg. Pig 25-26 v cow 1 calve
first breeding age for females and males, how to determine when animals will produce first progeny
females - 15 months (Bovine) needs to be 60-70% bodyweight to get good pregnancy
males - 1/2 adult body weight and about half the joining rate
Gestation period and first breeding age determine the date when an animal will first produce progeny
reproductive cycle
1) juvenile - not receptive to breeding
2) adult - able to breed by only receptive when in oestrus
3) when in oestrus only a few days
4) if not successfully mated may have continued oestrus cycles
- some species only receptive at certain times of the year
seasonal breeders give examples, why this occurs and list 3 ways to move breeding season
- Horses, temperate deer, goats, long wool British Breeds (eg Border Leicester)
Come into oestrus so that young will be born in favourable time of year (Spring)
1. Lights - expensive
2. Regulin ® - artificial drugs effecting the brain
3. Genetic selection within breed - select for non-seasonal breeders
what increases and decreases oestrus frequency
reduced
1) post-partum - after birth - cattle hard after 30 days, horses within 2 weeks - month
2) low condition score and low feed consumption - if gives birth at CS2 may take 60-70 days to cycle - 30 with CS4
increased
1) presence of male may increase - rams and ewes
what are the 5 ways to measure reproductive rate
1) ovulation rate
2) fertilization rate
3) birth survival, neonatal and weaning
4) lamb survival to weaning
5) weaner survival - weaning to adult
what is an easy way to estimate loss at a farm
number of females bred, multiplied by industry standard for progeny per female
○ What is the difference between this number and the actual number of animals that are produced each year – reasonable “guestimation” of post birth deaths (doesn’t account for loss during conception/gestation)
what are the 5 causes of loss on a farm
1) Genetics (size, shape etc)
2) Nutrition
3) Infectious disease
4) Predation
5) Environment
list ways genetics causes loss on a farm
1) birth weight - lambing ease - also related to physical shape of the calve and cow
2) breeds with larger heads or high muscling - belgium blues - nearly always C-section
3) genetic defect reduce reproductive rate such as curly calf syndrome - calves limbs born at different angles
list ways nutrition causes loss on farm
1) multiple pregnancies need lots of feed to get to adequate weight
2) not too much feed for singles as may get too large
3) lactation mothers need high energy to produce milk
4) weaner must adapt to adult type diet and needs to be balanced
4) adequate trace element nutrition
list ways infectious disease can cause loss on farms
1) reduce ability to successfully rear progeny - may be transferred from male to female
Eg - EVH1 - abortion
2) poor condition score for female or male can reduce reproduction
what are the main predators in australia and ways to control them
primarily wild dogs, foxes, pigs and less commonly birds of prey & crows
- Control methods
1. guard animals (dogs or camelids mostly)
2. shooting/baiting (co-ordinated) - need to ensure doesn’t get into non target species
3. “safe” containment areas
4. dog proof fences
what are the problems with aligning pasture and nutritional requirements
○ Whose nutritional requirements are best to try and match
○ Peck of pasture production - align with breeding lactation female or with offspring weaning
what are the considerations with time of lambing/calving
1) align pasture with nutritional requirements
cattle - go back 9 months
sheep - go back 5 months
2) minimum time of joining with maximum pregnancy % but not too long as then get variability in gestation times and nutritional requirements
3) does the season affect fertility
what are the considerations when to wean
1) balance between dam CS and growth of young
2) in dairy immediately
3) in meat may wait to increase growth of offspring
what are the two equations for stocking rate and what are they called
○ SR = 1.3 x (R-250) ÷ 25 (French Model) - R=rainfall
○ SR = 3.4 x G (length of growth season - months) - 7 (Saul Model)
what are the two typical production systems and what are the characteristics of each
1) autumn born
- seal fast-growing vealers in spring - lots of money per head
- Total (per hectare) meat production is limited as each paddock has less food therefore lower stocking density possible
○ Cows often need lots of supplementary feeding - expensive
2) late winter-spring (August) born
- Better matches nutritional demands to pasture production - Tends to avoid metabolic disease
- Produce more beef per hectare as increase stocking rate as each paddock can hold higher DSE ratings
what occurs 2 weeks after lambing on lambs and what is given to sheep to break parasite worm life cycle
- Lambs are vaccination, tail docked, mulesed/clipped 2 weeks after lambing ends
- Giving sheep 2 ‘summer drenches’ breaks the parasite worm life cycle from one year to the next
Psittiformes give examples and special characteristics
cockatoos, galahs, eclectus, budgie, lovebirds, macaws, lorikeets
- prehensile feet - lateral and medial digits caudally and other toes cranially
- syrinx - 3 pairs intrinsic muscles, vocal mimicry
- upper beak hooked - main weapon of defence, prominant cere
what is special about galahs and love birds
galahs
- flock species at breeding season will pair off - may pair with family members
- nursery flock - young flock together - need this intrinsically
love bird
- may harbour beck and feather (psittacine) disease and not show symptoms
passeriformes give examples and what are the special characteristics
finches, canaries, crows magpies
- perching birds - 3 unwebbed toes pointing forward and one back
- well developed syrinx for singing
- very high metabolic rate
galliformes give examples and special characteristics
chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quails
- poor at flying
- three toes facing forward and small hind digit
- terrestrial life styles
Anseriformes give examples and special characteristics
ducks, geese, swans
- webbed feet and short legs
- dense waterproof plumage, flattened dorsoventrally bills
-
columbiformes give examples and special characteristics
pigeons and doves
- Foot anatomy as with passerines.
- Infants are feed crop milk which is formed by rapidly desquamating crop-lining cells, during this time the crop may appear abnormally swollen.
Falconiformes and Strigiformes give examples and special characteristics
hawks, falcons, eagles and owls
- Specialized feet characterize raptors: thick scales protect them from injury and strong toes terminate in curved talons.
- Usually three toes forward and one toe back (ospreys and owls the fourth digit is able to rotate caudally).
- Wing aspects reflect the individual species’ hunting strategy. E
- large but nocturnal species rely more on sound to locate prey with large bilateral asymmetrical ear openings.
- All species are carnivorous and eject cast (indigestable material) before the next meal.
- Stout sharply curved beaks.
do birds prefer horizontal or vertical cages for flying, what type of cage walls should be used
horizontal
vertical caging - not too wide as may get legs or wings trapped - specific bar spacing for each species
bird perches, what makes best perch, what never use and what is the ideal width of the perch
- tree branches - australian natives
- Never use sandpaper on perches or PCV perches - have ridges and they spend a lot of time
- bird’s toenails reach about 2/3rd of the way around
how often should cages be disinfected and what to use
twice a month
Avisafe or F10 - very safe for birds to ingest
budgies what to feed, what can they cope with, how to sex, what prone to and how long do they live
- will do best if given a lots of fresh veges and a good seed mix or pellet.
- Cope well with smaller cages
- Can be happy without constant human contact and alone but loves plenty of stimulation.
- Adult males have a blue cere and females a brown cere.
- Prone to obesity on seed diets and bacterial infections when the cage is not kept clean.
cockatiel what to feed, what can cope with, what problems, what prone to and difference in sexes
- will do best if given a lots of fresh veges and a good seed mix or pellet
- very active - need time outside cages or large aviary
- cope well with periods without company
- can become aggressive especially if bond to one person
- prone to psittacosis and toxicosis
males - face and crest mainly yellow, bright red on cheek, plain underside of tail
female - dull cheek patch, underside of tail marked with horizontal bars
cockatoos diet, what require, what prone to and how long do they live
- needs lots of fresh veg and native plants, pellets better base diet than seeds
- require lots more space to fly, destructive and can be very noisy as flock bird
- highly social and desire 24 hour contact - psychological problems common
- beck and feather disease big problem and obesity with sunflower seeds
- can live 80 years plus
princess/regent/superb diet, what can cope with, where likely kept
- do okay on seed and veg diet
- good fliers and love to fly but can cope with periods in smaller cages
- don’t seem to mind periods alone
- relatively quite and non-aggressive
- more likely to be kept in an aviary
lorikeet diet, requirements and problems
- Nectar feeders, will eat fruit and veg and blossoms also.
○ number of lorikeet feeds on the market.
○ Stomach is different - gizzard isn’t thick so not designed to crush food - seeds
○ Have specialised appendages on tongue to
get out nectar - very inquisitive birds and require a lot of attention - highly social
- They won’t tolerate small cages.
- They have very messy droppings and can be destructive around the house.
- can become nasty and unpredictable if not well controlled by owner- can be very dominant and often try and form a bond with one person.
eclectus diet, what require, how to tell apart the sexes
- needs lots of fresh fruit and veg with pellets
- large birds require plenty of space usually calmer
- very gentle and trusting
- need plenty of attention but can cope with time alone
- males are green and females have blue crest
- don’t mate for life
sun conure what diet, what require and what problems
- Requires fresh fruit and vege, will cope with seeds.
- They are an active inquisitive parrot need lots of space for exploring.
- Can be destructive, demanding of human contact and get aggressive as they get older.
macaw what diet, what required, where keep, what dangers and what prone to
- need varied diet of seeds, nuts, pellet, fresh fruit and veg
- large and can be messy and destructive
- highly intelligent and very social - behavioral problems common
- need large purpose built aviary
- very strong large beaks tend to be very dominant if not handled properly
- very sensitive to psittacosis
what are the quarantine facilities needed for birds
- A separate cage in a quarantine area that mimics the main aviary should be used for new purchases.
- A separation distance of at least 10m from the main aviary.
- The quarantine area should have separate equipment from the main aviary.
- The cage should be well protected.
- Always feed, treat and manage these birds after first attending to the main aviary.
- Feed the same diet as the main aviary.
- Once a bird is transferred into the main aviary the cage and utensils should be fully disinfected.
time of quarantine for birds
6 weeks is ideal - mainly due to risk of chlamydia
- if bird becomes ill in quarantine need to start the time again
charolais, limousin, simmental what colour what used for
charolais - white, rapid growth rate, terminal sire
limousin - black or orange, good muscling, cross breeding
simmental - blonde to cherry colour with white face and legs (like hereford) meat and milk, rapid growth rate
belgian blue, murray grey, wagyu, beef shorthorn, lowline what colour what used for
belgian - white to roan to black, double muscling, very few natural births
murray - began from angus - Australian derived
wagyu - Japanese used in feedlots for marbled beef
beef shorthorn - red, white, roan
lowline - from angus breed, selected for low growth rate, smaller cattle for hobby farms
what is a black baldy, terminal sire and free martin
black baldy = angus cross hereford so black with white head
Free martin - generally occurs with twins
Externally female but no internal reproduction- Infertile
Terminal bull/sire
- All calves are sold for beef even if female or male
bos indicus, santa gertrudis, drought masters, brangus and belmont red how created and what used for
bos indicus - from USA, heat tolerance, tick resistance
santa gertrudis - 3/8 brahman, 5/8 shorthorn, red, some horns
drought masters - similar to brahman 50:50 bos indicus and bos taurus
brangus - similar to santa gertrudis but 5/8 angus instead
belmont red - african
explain the integration of dairy and beef systems
1) bobby calves sold for slaughter at minimum 5 days
2) females sometimes retained for breeding in beef industry - hereford or angus over friesian cross bred with terminal bull and calves sold as vealers
what is involved with feedlots
backgrounding - get animals used to hay, grain, and each other in paddock before put into feedlot
- used mainly for export market
what are used to improve genetics in the beef industry
studs - purchase bulls from other studs - AI or embryo transfer (expensive)
commercial herds - purchase bull from stud or occasionally use AI
Bos indicus verus Bos taurus and what is the beef turn-off per breeding unit for tropical vs temperate climate
- disease tolerance - ticks and lice
- heat tolerance - bos taurus struggle
grazing ability - bos indicus can walk very long distances
90% joined vs 70% joined
beef cattle genetic selection what programs used and what factors selected for
BLUP and Breedplan
1) Weight gain
2) Ease of calving - animal ethics, higher survival rates, less vet bills
3) Carcass characteristics - for slaughter - amount of money given
what is average birth weight and what occurs with larger birth weight
range from 25-50kg - cows mostly 30-45kg
large birth weights generally grow faster but only if survive
horns, dominant or recessive in bos taurus, how removed, what age group what used
recessive
- caustic paste (illegal in vic)
- Burn them off - within 1 month of age as the horn is small enough
- Scop out - deep enough to get the whole horn bud enough that all is taken out otherwise grow back and more painful later
- Keystone dehorners - really large and heavy - used for larger horns - snap the horns - adult and large cattle - grows into frontal sinus so more painful
fetotomy wire - serrated wire - used to cut up calves within the cow if it dies to prevent death of mum
what is used to dehorn calves and what also occurs around this time
Calf cradle is used, put calf within then rotate - castrated, vaccinated, fire branded, dehorned at the same time
what is the ratio of bulls to cows in northern australia vs southern
○ Northern 20-30 cows per bull - large area for mating and finding a mate
○ Southern - 30-50 cows per bull
what are the 4 ways to castrate beef cattle
1) cutting off base of scrotum - less than 1 minute, use knife or scalpel need large hole for drainage
2) emasculator - clamp artery and vein that supply testes
3) burdizzo - use two clamps blocks blood supply - swell then reabsorb overtime
4) elastic band - initially not as painful but is in later stages, after a few weeks whole scrotum falls off
list 9 ways to identify cattle
1) branding
2) ear tags
3) tattoo - lifetime ID but not very visible
4) coat colour and pattern
5) DNA
6) nose print - not really used
7) nose rings
8) neck collars - more dairy
9) ear notch - cut ear in certain spot
what are the different ways to brand cattle and what is mandatory
1) freeze or fire branding
queensland must be fire-branded and get certain letters or symbols for each farm
2) paint - short-term generally for cattle markets
what are the different types of ear tags
- visual (plastic)
- visual (metal) - tend to be smaller than plastic
- NLIS (electronic) - national livestock identification scheme - electronic
- ruminal bolus - more expensive and not commonly used, only really used if cattle are being stolen as hard to remove
anthelmintics what are the 3 main ways they are administered and the 3 main drug families
TD (transdermal), SC (subcutaneous), PO (pour on)
1) Ml (ivermectin) - most common - overused,
2) white (Ben)
3) clear (Lev)
control of external parasites what are the two main ones, what do they do and what kills both internal and external
- Ticks are main external parasite concern - can kill cattle
- Lice can damage coat, but minimal body weight loss (mostly fence damage from rubbing)
- endectocidal compounds
Green improved pasture 2, 5, 6, 10cm what kg DM/Ha available and what can it maintain
2 - 700 - dry cow/steer
5 - 1400 - early pregnancy
6 - 1600 - late pregnancy
10 - 2200 - lactating cow
what are 4 influences on total beef cattle production
1) rainfall
2) soil type and topography
3) disease - FMD
4) competing industry - other red meat, white meat
who are the biggest exporters in the world and why are beef prices high now
USA, Brazil and India- largest producer so factors affecting their stocks effects world beef prices
- At the moment USA not producing as much so Australian beef prices has increased
what are the two main countries australia exports beef to and why and what is the main country for live export
1) japan - feedlot beef much more marbled
2) America - older cows as pasture so less fat than feedlot cattle
live - Indonesia - slaughter process is a lot cheaper than in the north
what is the live weight and condition score values for the following markets: local trade, Europe and Japan
local trade: 2-3 condition, 200-300Kg (350-450)
Europe: 3-4 condition, 400-500Kg
Japan - 4-5 condition, 600-700Kg
what are the 4 main methods of selling beef cattle and what is most popular in southern and northern australia
1) Auction
2) Over the hooks - given grid of prices in abattoir and give cattle to abattoir and then abattoir value cow based on meat relative to the grid
○ Generally larger producers - is increasing
3) Paddock
4) Other - online auction
Southern - mostly auction, little online auction
Northern - mostly over the hook and paddock
what is the main crossbreeding that occurs with beef
Angus x Friesian female is a high milk producing cow with moderate beef characteristics. Crossed with Limousin produces a very fast growing vealer calf for domestic meat market
what are the 3 main costs in running a beef farm
1) wages
2) supplementary feed
3) fertiliser/pasture
