Procedures (AS)

Question 1

Piliavin et al. (subway samaritans)

Answer 1

1. a team of 4 students boarded a carriage on a NY subway train
2. two female observers took separate seats; 2 male students playing role of ‘VICTIM’ and ‘MODEL’ remained standing
3. victim always stood on centre of critical area
4. 70 seconds into the journey, the victim collapsed on the floor until they received help
5. if no help given by the time the train reached the next station, model helped victim to sitting position
6. team would reboard a train along the same route in the OPPOSITE DIRECTION, completing 6-8 trials per day

VICTIM:
* 4 teams of students, each with a victim aged 26-35
* dressed in old trousers & jacket
* one victim was black, 3 were white
* 38 trials DRUNK CONDITION (carried liquor bottle wrapped in brown bag)
* 65 trials ILL CONDITION (carried black cane)

MODEL:
* all white males aged 24-29
* 4 conditions where model helped victim to a sitting position (order randomised):
1. critical area-early (stood in critical area, gave help after 70 seconds)
2. critical area-late (stood in critical area, gave help after 2.5 minutes)
3. adjacent area-early (stood in adjacent area, gave help after 70 seconds)
4. adjacent area-late (stood in adjacent area, gave help after 2.5 minutes)
5. there was also a non-model condition

Question 2

Pozzulo et al. (lineups)

Answer 2

1. each child’s parents/guardians & the adult participants were given a written consent form
2. adults attended the lab and were briefed, saying it was a study about memory
3. to test the children, 3 female experimenters went to their school & they were briefed, saying it was for a project on TV shows & computer games
   * made clear to the children that they could change their minds and not participate
   * experimenters did craft work with them before the experiment to make them comfortable
4. the researchers prepared video clips and line-up photograph arrays presented on 13-inch laptop screens
5. human face targets were 2 CAUCASIAN STUDENTS used to make 2 types of stimulus material:

• for the videos: a 6 second-clip was filmed of an everyday task: a FEMALE brushing her hair & a MALE putting his coat on
  (each video shown in color with NO SOUND, showed 2-3 secs of the individual’s face)
• for the photoarrays: the 2 human targets were photographed wearing different clothes than in the video
  (for each target, 4 foil photos were chosen by 3 raters to look similar to the targets in terms of facial features, hair color and length)
  (all photos cropped to only include face to top of shoulders)

1. 2 cartoon faces were Dora and Diego used to make 2 types of stimulus material:

• the two 6 second clips were Dora talking to the audience and Diego putting on a pair of gloves
  (each video shown in color with NO SOUND, showed 2-3 secs of their face)
• for the photoarrays: still images of Dora and Diego were used (for each target, 4 foil photos were chosen by 3 raters to look similar to the targets in terms of facial features, hair color and length)
  (all photos cropped to only include face, because they tended to wear similar clothing in all eps)

• target-present line-ups contained the target & 3 foils; target-absent contained 4 foils
• every lineup contained a blank sillhouette to enable a choice to be made even if the ppt judged the target wasn’t present
• lineup shown as** SIMULTANEOUS ARRAY**, in black and white
• each participant in all 4 conditions watched the 4 videos presented in a random order
• position of each target in the line-up was randomised, but for the equivalent target-absent lineup, the 4th foil was located in the same position as the original target

Question 3

Dement & Kleitman (sleep and dreams)

Answer 3

1. participants were asked to come to the lab just before their bedtime
2. participants were asked to not consume any alcohol, coffee and stimulants to avoid sleep disruptions
3. participant would lay in bed in a dark room in the lab and have electrodes attached to their eyelids and scalp tied in a ponytail to allow for free movement during sleep
4. electrodes were connected to EEG in another room
5. the 5 participants would be woken up from different stages of REM and nREM sleep:

• PM & KC were woken from REM & nREM through a random number table
• DN woken according to 3 REM and 3 nREM
• WD was also woken at random; woken from both REM & nREM but was told he’d only be woken up in REM (deception)
• IR woken according to experimenter’s choice

STUDY 1:
* participants would be woken up with a loud doorbell, and were required to report their dream into a tape recorder next to them, whether or not they could recall their dream. If they did, they had to describe it

STUDY 2:
* Initially, the researchers would wake them up after various REM stages and ask them to estimate how long they’d been dreaming for. This was too difficult for participants
* Revised procedure: participants were woken up after 5 or 15 minutes of REM and asked them to guess how long they were dreaming for (5 or 15 mins)

STUDY 3:
* when participants reported their dream, the researchers investigated whether the movements described in their dream matched their eye movements

• researchers also counted** number of words** used to describe the dream
• researcher would come into the room at times to ask additional questions
• comparison EEG records were taken from 20 naive participants and 5 from the experimental sample, who were asked to watch distant and close-up activity

Question 4

Fagen et al. (elephants)

Answer 4

• elephants were trained in the morning (7.30-10am) and/or afternoon (4-7pm)
• session times depended on the availability of the mahouts, but were never 2 days apart
• to complete a trunk wash, elephants had to:

1. put their trunk into the trainer’s hand (so saline water can be inserted)
   * Lure (chopped banana placed on trainer’s hand)
2. lift their trunk and hold (so fluid can flow into base of trunk)
   * Lure and shaping (trainer lifts chopped banana over elephant’s head so elephant reaches upwards)
3. lower their trunk into the bucket
   * Lure (chopped banana placed inside bucket)
4. blow into bucket (to remove the fluid)
   * Capture and shaping (wait for natural exhale and reward, then shape with further reward for more forceful exhales)
5. hold steady (keep trunk still)
   * Shaping (extending period of time the position is held for, then reward)

• trainers used one-syllable verbal cues to prompt the elephants once they successfully learned all 5 behaviors
• verbal cues weren’t words and meant nothing in English & Nepali
• behavioral chaining was used to encourage the elephants to perform the behaviors in ORDER, following the verbal cue
• starting with 2 behaviors, the elephants were only rewarded if they completed it in the right order. More behaviors added until they could perform all 5 in order

1. syringe was only introduced when the elephants learned all 5 behaviors (it’s an aversive stimulus)
2. to help them accept the syringe, trainers gradually brought it closer to the elephant’s trunk during step 1, rewarding the elephants with bananas until they were happy to let the syringe touch their trunk (DESENSITISATION)
3. counterconditioning was also used to make the elephants associate the syringe with arrival of chopped banana (gradually went from an aversive stimulus to conditioned stimulus)
4. once the elephants could tolerate the syringe touching their trunks, trainer gradually encouraged them to accept the syringe being placed INSIDE THEIR TRUNK, slowly moving towards injecting a drop of fluid, then 1ml to 15ml, to the full 60ml

Question 5

Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)

Answer 5

1. boy and mother both provided informed consent to participate
2. they were interviewed to determine whether any trauma or abuse could explain the phobia
   * phobia began at age 5 when he knocked over a bowl of buttons in front of his class & teacher
   * he found this incident distressing, and ever since, his aversions for buttons steadily increased
   * unable to get dressed by himself, **schoolwork suffered **because he couldn’t concentrate, too worried to touch school uniform, avoided clothes with buttons & people with buttons on clothing
3. through discussion with the boy, they created a hierarchy of feared stimuli, with the most feared items being SMALL, CLEAR PLASTIC BUTTONS (rated 8 on Feelings Thermometer) and the least feared being LARGE DENIM JEAN BUTTONS (rated 2 on Feelings Thermometer)
4. Boy treated with two interventions, one after the other

a) Contingency management (positive reinforcement therapy) = behavior focused approach
* boy was rewarded for showing less fear and handling buttons
* positive reinforcement given by mother ONLY AFTER he completed a gradual exposure to buttons
* sessions lasted 20-30 min
* researchers observed how he handled the buttons, then measured his subjective rating of distress in the Feelings Thermometer

b) Imagery exposure therapy
* seven sessions where the therapists asked the boy to describe how buttons look, feel and smell and to explain how he felt while imagining them.
* images progressed from larger to smaller buttons
* measured subjective rating of distress in Feelings Thermometer

Post-treatment
1. ADIS-C/P was used directly after treatment to measure efficacy of treatment, and again 6 and 12 months later

Question 6

Bandura et al. (aggression)

Answer 6

CONDITIONS
1. there were 8 experimental conditions, with 6 participants in each condition, as well as a control condition with 24 participants (12 males and 12 females) who saw no model
2. in the experimental conditions, half observed an aggressive model, the other half observed a non-aggressive model
3. within this group, half observed male model, half observed female model
4. within these groups, the model was either same sex or opposite sex to participants

HOW PARTICIPANTS WERE ALLOCATED TO GROUPS
1. observed by a teacher & experimenter on aggression
2. each participant had a composite score on aggression from 4 five-point scales (physical aggression, verbal aggression, aggression towards inanimate objects, aggression inhibitions)
3. participants matched on aggression were arranged in threes
4. they had an equal chance of being in one of the experimental groups

PROCEDURE FROM WHEN A PPT ENTERED AN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP UNTIL THE MODEL ASSEMBLED THE TOYS

1. child was seated at a table in a corner of a room
2. experimeter demonstrated to the child how to make pictures/potato prints/use stickers
3. once the child began ‘playing’ the experimenter took the model to the opposite corner
4. variety of objects were there (e.g. mallet, Bobo doll, etc)
5. experimenter explained that these were for the model to play with
6. experimenter then left the room

Non-aggressive condition
Model played with the tinker toys in a quiet manner and played with the Bobo doll

Aggressive condition
After a minute of playing with the tinker toys, model was aggressive to the Bobo Doll for 9 minutes
The model repeated these 3 times, along with aggressive comments:-
1. laid the doll on its side
2. sat on it
3. punched its nose
4. lifted it and hit it on the head with mallet
5. throwing it up and kicking it around the room

AGGRESSION AROUSAL PROCEDURE
* child brought into a room with toys (e.g. fire engine, doll carriage, crib)
* they were told they could play with them
* as soon as they began to play, the experimenter stopped them and they were told that these toys were reserved for other children
* experimenter sat away from the child and completed paperwork

FINAL PART
* each participant spent 20min in the experimental room and their behavior was observed thru a one-way mirror
* room contained range of dolls including Bobo Doll
* behavior was rated in behavioral checklist (imitation of physical aggression, imitative verbal aggression, imitative non-aggressive verbal response)
* behavior was recorded every 5 seconds
* total of 240 response units were recorded per ppt

Question 7

Baron-Cohen (eyes test)

Answer 7

• ALL PARTICIPANTS CONSENTED TO TAKE PART IN THE STUDY
• WERE MADE AWARE OF THE NATURE OF THE RESEARCH
• DATA MADE **ANONYMOUS **

1. they started with 40 sets of eyes, target words (correct mental state) and foil words chosen by 2 researchers
2. 1 target word and 3 foil words for each eyes were piloted using groups of 8 judges
3. if more than 2 judges selected the foil, a NEW TARGET WORD, NEW FOILS or BOTH were made, and the item was retested until it met the criterion
4. each participant read through a glossary of words used in the experiment to describe the emotions to ensure they knew the meaning of the words
5. each participant was shown a practice item, followed by the set of eyes
6. they had to pick the correct word for the emotion of the eyes in the photo from 4 possibilities
7. test was sat by the participants with a RESEARCHER in a quiet room in Exeter or Cambridge
8. Participants in all conditions EXCEPT GROUP 2 (adult comparison group) were also asked to complete the AQ test at home and return it by post

Question 8

Hassett et al.

Answer 8

• Toys chosen were divided into 2 groups (wheeled and plush) and they were categorised based on their properties rather than gender-typing
• Wheeled toys matched vehicle toys typically for boys (16-46cm, e.g. wagon, car, truck) 6 wheeled toys
• Plush toys were soft and cuddly, typically for girls (14-73cm, e.g. Winnie the Pooh, Scooby Doo, teddy bear) 7 plush toys

1. for each social group, there were 7 trials lasting 25 minutes each, and was recorded with 2 video recorders
2. toys were placed 10 metres apart and their positions were counterbalanced (to ensure the monkeys didn’t prefer a certain area of the enclosure)
3. 2 observers noted the exact time, frequency and duration of each monkey’s interactions with the toys when they analysed the content of the 2 video recorders
4. specific behaviors of the monkeys (e.g. drag, hold) were coded in behavioral checklist
5. observers took an overall average of the duration & frequency of the monkeys’ interaction
6. monkeys with fewer than 5 interactions weren’t included in analysis and average

Question 9

Andrade

Answer 9

1. All participants were given a piece of paper to use as a response sheet
2. CONTROL GROUP: sheet of lined paper (so they could’ve doodled if they wanted to
   * DOODLING GROUP: sheet of A4 paper with PRINTED SHAPES and with WIDE MARGIN to write responses
   * they were asked to shade in the shapes with pencil without worrying about the speed and neatness of the drawing
   * task was described to them as “just something to relieve the boredom”
3. all participants listened to a monotonous mock telephone call about a party = 227wpm
   * told not to write anything else
   * lasted 2.5 minutes
4. when the tape finished, the experimenter collected the response sheets
5. experimenter engaged ppts in conversation for one minute, including an apology for misleading them about the memory test
6. they completed the surprise test of recalling names of places, then people, or vice versa
7. participants were debriefed and asked if they suspected if they’d be given a memory test

Calculation of monitoring performance score:
number of correct names - number of false alarms

Question 10

Milgram

Answer 10

• male school high teacher played the role of ‘experimenter’; male actor was ‘learner’

*** participant was told that they were taking in a study on the effect of punishment on learning as little was known about this
* almost no studies have been developed on humans **

• participants drew a slip of paper from a hat to determine whether they’d play the role of ‘teacher’ or ‘learner’
• this was rigged so the participant would choose ‘teacher’
• both teacher and learner were taken to a room where the learner was strapped into an electric chair & electrode on his wrist
• experimenter explained that “Although the shocks can be extremely painful, they cause no lasting tissue damage.”
• participant was given a sample 45V shock

PRELIMINARY RUN:
1. a preliminary run was conducted so the participants mastered the task
2. seven of these trials involved delivering shocks to a maximum of 105V

REGULAR RUN:
1. when shock levels of 300V and 315V were administered, learner was pounding on the wall
2. after 300V, he stopped responding to questions completely
3. participant was told to treat no as an incorrect answer

If participants were unwilling to continue, a series of ‘prods’ were used:
1. Please continue
2. The experiment requires that you continue
3. It is absolutely essential that you continue
4. You have no other choice, you must go on.
* If the participant refused after the 4th prod, the study ended.

If a participant was scared it’d cause permanent injury:
“Although the shocks may be painful, there’s no permanent tissue damage, so please go on”

If a participant commented on the learner wanting to stop:
“Whether the learner likes it or not, you must go on until he has learned all the word pairs correctly. So please go on.”

• after the expeirment, participant undertook an interview about their experiences so the learner knew he wasn’t harmed (dehoaxing)

Question 11

Holzel et al. (mindfulness)

Answer 11

• Both the experimental and control groups were required to complete the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)
• The questionnaire includes 39 items that measure:
  1. Observing: attending to/noticing internal and external stimuli such as thoughts, sensations, smells, sounds etc.
  2. Describing: mentally labelling these observations with words
  3. Acting with awareness: being attentive to current actions rather than responding absentmindedly
  4. Non-Judging: not evaluating sensations, cognitions, or emotions
  5. Non-Reactivity: allowing thoughts and feelings to drift in and out
• Responses to the items are given on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never or very rarely true, 5 = very often or always true)
• The total score for each of the 5 categories are added up for a total FFMQ score
• Useable data was collected from 14 participants from each group
• MRI scans were conducted two weeks before the experimental group had their first MBSR training
• 3D models were created of the brain by taking pictures of 128 sagittal slices (top of the brain to the bottom), and combining these pictures using a computer software
• These models were then analysed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM), a technique of segmenting the brain into grey matter and white matter, in order to measure grey matter concentration in the two brain ‘regions of interest’ (ROI) – the bilateral hippocampi and insulae, as well as the brain as a whole
• The experimental group then took part in an 8 weekly MBSR sessions, after which they completed the FFMQ
  1) The experimental group participants were given a 45 minute audio recording of guided mindfulness exercises including body scan, yoga, and meditation, to help them complete exercises at home such as washing up, eating, or taking a shower
  2) Further MRI scans were taken two weeks after the final MBSR session for the experimental group
  3) The approximate duration between the pre-test (first scan) and post-test (second scan) was 56 days

4) The control group also took two scans, 66 days apart, as well as completing the FFMQ once after the first scan, and once again after the second scan

• The eight-week program of MBSR that included 2.5 hour weekly group meetings, plus one 6.5 hour training day involved training in three techniques:

1. Body Scanning: slowly becoming aware of sensations in each area of the body, which in
   
   • leads to gradually developing awareness of the whole body/mind
2. Mindful Yoga: gentle stretching, coordinated, slow movements and breathing with a
   focus on the moment to moment experience
   
   • allows one to be fully aware of their presence in the here-and-now
3. Sitting Meditation: developing awareness of the sensation of breathing and of sensory
   information such as sight, smell, touch, taste etc, and emotions
   
   • allows gradual awareness of all aspects of consciousness

CONTROLS
1) All participants took the same standardized FFMQ, once before the session, and once after
2) The FFMQ was scored on a standardized rating scale
3) All participants in the experimental group went through the same MBSR training for the same duration
4) The use of the MRI was standardized, and scans were always taken two weeks before the training program, and two weeks after

Question 12

Perry et. al (Personal space)

Answer 12

• Sample: 54 male undergraduates from the University of Haifa, Israel, 19-32 years. Received course credit or payment for participation. 5 - left-handed and none had psychiatric or neurological conditions.

Prior to Experiments, Procedures:

• Oxytocin Administration: ppts were invited to come twice, 1 week apart, on the same day and time. All ppts signed a consent form. Ppts randomly administered solution of 24 international units in 25ml of internasal (IN) OT solution or sterile solution (placebo). They were self-administered by the ppts in the presence of the experimenter by means of IN drops, applied with a nasal dropper, 3 drops each nostril. No significant side effects noted.
• Assessment of Empathy: After administering the solution, during their first appointment, ppts were asked to complete an online questionnaire the IRI, a 28-item self-report measure consisting of four 7-item subscales as a measure of reactivity to others. Each ppt was asked to wait until 45 mins passed to ensure OT levels in the central nervous system reached a plateau. During this, ppts sat in a comfortable quiet room and were given 3 issues of a popular Israeli nature magazine. After 45 mins, ppts began the experiments. The order was counterbalanced.

• Experiment 1 - CID (repeated measures): IV - animation tested people on their preferred interpersonal distance from different people:
• The CID paradigm is a computer animation to measure interpersonal distance. First, the word friend, stranger, authority or ball appears on the screen for 1 second. Next, the participant must gaze at a point which appears on the screen for 0.5 secs. The next screen then shows a plan of a circular room with a stick person at the centre representing the participant.
  Next comes an animation that lasts up to 3 seconds: a stick person or circle (the ball) (the protagonist) enters the circle from one of 8 doors around the edge, before approaching the person in the middle. The participant has to press the spacebar on the computer keyboard when they want the protagonist to stop. There were 96 trials in total with the 4 protagonists appearing 3 times from each of the eight doors. Interpersonal distance was calculated as the percentage of distance remaining between the protagonist and the central figure, from 0% to 100%, so a low score = close proximity and a high score = farther proximity.
• Experiment 2 - Changing Rooms (repeated measures): it calculate values for two different DV: the mean average preferred distance and mean average preferred angle between different items of furniture in a room.
• Researchers could compare preferences for the spatial arrangement of the chairs (a measure of interpersonal distance preference) and a table and plant (a control condition).
• The participants were told that the task was to help plan the layout of a room where they would be having a conversation with another participant about a personal topic.
• Participants were told they would be having a meeting with another participant to discuss personal topics and that the room would be laid out according to their preferences, as measured by a computer program. Participants were deceived about the true aims of the study. The computer program showed the participants still colour images of pairs of rooms where the chairs, table and plant were at slightly different angles and distances from each other. The experiment included 21 different pairs of chair distances. 21 different pairs of table–plant distances, and three options for each pair of angles, which were repeated seven times to yield 21 pairs of comparative angles as well. 84 pairs of rooms were each shown twice, giving a total of 168 pairs. During the task, participants sat 60 cm from the computer screen and were shown each pair of rooms for 2 seconds.
  They had to fixate on a point on a blank screen for 0.5 seconds between each pair. Participants chose between the left or the right room. The experimental conditions were the distance between chairs and the angle of the chairs’ positions, while the control conditions were the distance between the table and plant, as well as the angle of the positions of the table and plant. Only one of these variables differed on each trial.