Organisational Psychology Flashcards
Who was Abraham Maslow?
- psychologist known for his theory of human motivation and hierarchy of needs
- his approach emphasised self-actualisation and innate needs fulfilment
- believes that humans are all self-determining and have free-will
- advocated for a holistic approach to understand human behaviour and motivation
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (not the pyramid)
- Maslow (1943) proposed a motivational theory comprising 5 basic needs.
- believes that we need to fully satisfy the needs at the bottom before moving up the top.
- he saw the first 4 levels as deficiency needs; these are needs where we are motivated to obtain something we lack.
- the longer these needs are unmet, the stronger the motivation is.
- at the top, self-actualisation, is a growth need. the motivation turns from trying to obtain something that is lacking, to trying to grow as a person.
- as growth needs are fulfilled, the motivation increases to do even better.
- he believed that everyone has the potential to reach self-actualisation.
- in reality, life experiences e.g. job sackings, or a divorce, meant that ppl fall back down the hierarchy at any time and may never reach the top.
Maslow’s hierarchy (the pyramid)
Self-actualisation: morality, creativity, acceptance (of facts)
Esteem: confidence, respect, achievement
Love/belonging: sexual intimacy, family, friendship
Security: security of property/house, of health, of employment
Physiological: food, water, sleep
Kaufman (2018)
Aim
Aim 1 - to show that the characteristics of self-actualization that Maslow (1950) are related to both the absence of deprivation and abundance of health, growth, well-being.
Aim 2 - to produce a new scale to measure the characteristics of self-actualisation by Maslow (1950).
Procedure
- 522 ppts completed an online survey
- some items were modified from Maslow’s original language to improve comprehensibility and reliability
- some names of the characteristics were changed to be comprehensible for modern day psychologists and the general public
The Characteristics of Self-Actualization Scale - CSAS
- It is a 30-item measure that captures 10 interrelated characteristics of self-actualization, adapted from Maslow’s (1950) characteristics of self-actualizing people.
Findings
- Scores on the CSAS positively correlated with all 5 Big Five traits e.g. Extraversion, Agreeableness, Openness to Experience.
- Scores on the CSAS correlated with work-related outcomes e.g. job performance and job satisfaction.
Application to everyday life
- CSAS is a useful tool in assessing self-actualisation in the workplace and can be used by organisations to identify their workers’ needs.
- This allows them to provide workers with needs that they lack with the goal of helping them self-actualise and thus, increase productivity, creativity.
What happens when people have a HIGH/LOW achievement need?
McClelland’s Theory of Achievement Motivation
People with HIGH achievement needs:
* Will try to succeed by avoiding low reward / low risk situations.
* Low-risk situations are avoided as success will be too easily obtained and will not be seen as a ‘real’ achievement.
* If a situation is too high risk they will see the result as luck rather than their own achievement.
- They want regular feedback so they can monitor their own progress and would rather work alone or with other high achievers.
People with LOW achievement needs
* avoid responsibility at work for fear of failing, so they do not try.
McClelland’s Theory of Achievement Motivation
- Builds on Maslow’s hierarchy; identifies 3 work-related motivational needs he believed everyone has: (APA)
1. Achievement: urge to achieve something and master a task
2. Power: want to make an impact & influence decision-making (want high prestige)
3. Affiliation: feel apart of a group - Our specific mix of motivational needs are shaped by our experiences (learned behaviours)
What happens when people have HIGH/LOW affiliation needs?
McClelland’s Theory of Achievement Motivation
People with HIGH affiliation needs:
* Tend to conform to group norms, won’t challenge the group because they fear rejection
* Prefer work that leads to large amount of time spent with others
People with LOW affiliation needs
* Don’t desire social interaction
* not team players
* remain distant from others, don’t seek their acceptance
What happens when people have HIGH/LOW power needs?
McClelland’s Theory of Achievement Motivation
People with HIGH power needs:
* Want to make an impact, influence decision-making processes
* High prestige, wants viewpoint to be accepted
Two types of power individuals may need: 1. Personal power (need to control others) 2. Institutional power (need to organise a team to achieve goals set by business)
People with LOW power needs:
* Won’t seek positions of authority and influence
* Dependent on others to make decisions
* Reduce the importance of the role when speaking to others
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- Involves showing individuals ambiguous pictures and asking them to create stories.
- Assumes participants project their own thoughts, feelings, and experiences onto the images.
- Reveals aspects of personality, emotions, and unconscious desires.
- Allows employers to gain insights into employees’ perceptions, motivations, and attitudes at work.
- Analyzing work-related scenarios provides information about unconscious thoughts and emotions related to** job roles, colleagues, superiors**, and the work environment.
Latham and Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
- Suggested that goal-setting was a key motivator in getting people to work out and improve performance
- involves devising an action plan to motivate a person to achieve a specific goal
- Suggested that specific goals produces higher levels of performance than setting vague goals
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4C F (goals must be…)
Clarity: clear, specific, measurable
Challenge: relevant, makes the goal setter feel like they’re stretched, so achieving the goals is a genuine reward
Commitment: understood and accepted by the goal setter to be effective. Goals set by other people are less effective.
Complexity: achievable, so it’s best to break down complex goals into separate tasks to be achieved in a specific time period
Feedback: involve feedback on task progress and achievement - SMART (make your goal…)
Specific
Measurable
Achievable: reasonably achieve it within a time frame
Realistic
Time-based: set a realistic but ambitious time frame to clarify task prioritisation & increase motivation
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
- Vroom (1964) proposes that workers are rational beings whose decision-making is guided by logical thought processes.
- Focuses on costs and rewards
- A worker’s performance is influenced by knowledge, skills and experience, as well as individual characteristics such as personality, different ambitions, and goals.
They are motivated if/there is:
* a clear relationship between effort and performance
* favourable performance is rewarded
* reward satisfies a need
* desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile
VALENCE
- ‘strength’ of an expected reward - the perception of an outcome
- This could be the size of the reward e.g. big vs. small bonus or the type of reward e.g. intrinsic (e.g. sense of achievement) or extrinsic (e.g. money)
- rewards tailored to the employee
Instrumentality
- you believe that if you perform well, the expected outcome / reward will happen and this will match the effort put in. This is affected by:
- trust in the people who are deciding who will get the outcome or reward
- whether process of deciding who gets the reward is simple
- whether relationship between performance and outcome is clear
Expectancy
- Expectancy
- perception that effort will lead to intended performance. It is affected by:
- skill level
- whether you have the right resources to do the job
- the support you get from others
- training and mentoring can help to raise expectancy
Extrinsic Motivation at work
- extrinsic motivation is when behaviour is driven by external factors.
- extrinsic rewards could be money or avoiding negative consequences e.g. demotion.
- driven by operant conditioning which uses rewards and punishment to increase or decrease the likelihood of desired behaviour.
- benefits of extrinsic motivators: employees can see direct, observable results of their behaviour.
- this can focus energy and increase motivation
- however it is costly, especially in a large term.
- it can also be short term and can lead to burnout and long-term demotivation if used frequently to get results.
examples of extrinsic motivators at work:
* pay
* bonuses
* profit sharing pay
Intrinsic Motivation at work
- Intrinsic motivation is related to internal emotions and occurs when behaviour is driven by factors e.g. the feeling of satisfaction at reaching a target, recognition from a manager and praise.
- Intrinsically motivated behaviours in the workplace are those which are motivated due to a feeling of being valued, and a sense of belonging.
examples of extrinsic motivators at work:
* recognition
* empowerment
* respect
Application to real life: supportive evidence from Waal and Jansen (2011) for extrinsic and intrinsic motivators
Waal and Jansen reported these findings amongst others:
- Over half the growth in productivity in Chinese State industries could be attributed to the use of bonuses (Yao, 1997)
- Positive effects of performance-related pay (Belfield and Marsden, 2005)
- Organisations paying senior executives on high performance-related pay scales maintained strong stock market presences (Hollowell, 2005)
However,
- Some studies demonstrate that in organisations with very high inequalities there is also a very high turnover of staff. This would suggest that any gains in productivity shown by the high performers are outweighed by the costs to the low performers.
- Research in the UK found no relationship between the size of bonus payments and performance (Fattorusso et al. 2007)
Deci and Ryan’s (1985) Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
C: Competency (need to feel effective and capable. Involves gaining mastery and understanding over your tasks)
- Fulfilled through opportunities for skill development, feedback and experiences of success
- When people feel competent, they believe they can achieve desired outcomes and tackle challenges successfully
A: Autonomy (need to feel in control of one’s own behaviours and goals)
- When people have autonomy, they perceive their actions as being self-determined.
- Environments that support autonomy allow people to make choices aligning with their own interests.
R: Relatedness (need to feel connected to others, to love and care, and to be loved and cared for)
- Involves developing secure connections with others
- Environments that support relatedness nurture support, inclusion and belonging
How can employees benefit from Latham and Locke’s goal setting theories?
Increased motivation: goal setting provides employees with clear objectives and a sense of purpose. Often more motivated to put in the effort required to achieve those goals.
Enhanced job satisfaction: When employees feel that their efforts are contributing to the accomplishment of important tasks, they tend to be more satisfied with their work.
Improved focus and prioritisation: helps prioritise tasks and focus on what matters most. This can reduce distractions and increase productivity
It’s In Earth
How can managers benefit from Latham and Locke’s goal setting theories?
Performance management: managers can use goal setting to align employee performance with organisational objectives. By setting clear performance goals, managers can ensure their employees are working hard towards common goals
Communication and alignment: setting goals throughout the organisation helps create alignment and shared sense of purpose. Improves coordination and collaboration amongst departments
Conflict resolution: when goals are clear and well-communicated, it reduces misunderstandings and conflicts related to job expectations. Can use goals as a reference point to address performance issues.
Please Come Close
Landry et al context
- Orgs use money to attract individuals to work for them & to improve motivation of their employees
- Monetary rewards lead to temporary improvement of performance bc employees focus on the external rewards (extrinsic) when completing tasks rather than internal enjoyment (intrinsic)
- SDT suggests that extrinsic motivators eg money should not be seen as -ves; how it is applied will determine what functional meaning give to them.
Landry et al context
Hypothesis 1:
- Informational & autonomy-supportive -> greater performance
- Controlling & autonomy-threatening -> lower performance
Hypothesis 2:
- Informational & autonomy-supportive -> Greater psychological needs satisfaction -> Higher intrinsic motivation
- Controlling & autonomy-threatening -> Greater psychological needs frustration -> Higher extrinsic motivation
Landry et al methodology
Methodology
- Lab experiment
- Quantitative data was produced thru the use of self-reports (questionnaires)
Landry et al sample
Sample
- 123 student volunteers (mean age = 23 yrs) were recruited thru an ‘Introduction to - Organisational Behaviour’ course at a Canadian university
- All students were randomly assigned to either the autonomy-supportive (informational) condition (n=65) or the autonomy-threatening (controlling) condition (n=58)
- 60% students female; 40% male
Landry et al procedure
All ppts read an instruction paragraph abt a task they would be asked to perform & the reward given on completion.
This paragraph was either:
- Autonomy-supportive paragraph: supportive & encouraging, giving a meaning to the reward eg ppts were told ‘the monetary reward was … a token of appreciation for their contribution.’
- Autonomy-threatening paragraph: pressurise the participant, giving controlling meaning to the reward eg ppts were told ‘the monetary reward was … to reinforce the performance standards of the task’ e.g. must
- reward: $10 gift card for a local coffee shop.
- After reading the instructions, ppts given 2 mins to correctly solve 25 4-letter anagrams.
- This task has been used in previous studies and considered a valid measure of performance.
- After completion, a performance score was obtained using a standardised procedure.
Landry et al self-reports measures
- All ppts were also asked to rate on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) the extent to which they felt their psychological needs had been satisfied or frustrated using the Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction Scale and the Psychological Needs Thwarting Scale.
- Ppts reported their intrinsic & extrinsic motivation using a 7-point Situational Motivation Scale by responding to the stem, ‘Why are you currently engaged in this activity?’ There were then a no. of responses eg, ‘… because I think that this activity is interesting’ for intrinsic motivation.
