OP - 9.2: Leadership and Management Flashcards
1
Q
What is in this topic?
A
- Traditional and modern theories of leadership
* Universalist theories (great person theory, charismatic leadership theory, transformational leadership theory)
* Behavioural theories of leadership (Ohio & Michigan Uni explanations)
* Heifetz’ 6 principles in meeting adaptive challenges (GRIM-GP) - Leadership style
* Mucyk and Reimann’s 4 styles of leader behaviour (DA, PA, DD, PD)
* Scouller’s levels of leadership (public, private, personal)
* Cuadrado et al. - Leaders and followers
* Kouzes and Posner’s 5 practices of exemplary leadership (MICEE) and LPI
* Kelley’s followership (CAPEP)
2
Q
What key features of good followers did Kelley find?
A
- Independent critical thinking, as contrasted with dependent uncritical thinking
- whether follower has ACTIVE or PASSIVE participation in working towards goals
3
Q
Name Kelley’s followership styles
A
CAPEP
- Conformist (yes people)
- Alienated
- Passive (sheep)
- Exemplary
- Pragmatic survivors
4
Q
Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘conformist’ style
A
- depend on leader for inspiration, usually totally obedient and never question orders
- bosses weak in self-confidence seem to like them, but they can cause organisation to lose initative
5
Q
Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘alienated’ style
A
- critical in thinking, but passive when doing job
- have become negative and resentful, but don’t go openly against bosses (whisper on sidelines)
6
Q
Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘passive’ style
A
- lack initiative and responsibility
- passive in thinking and engagement
- motivated by leader, NOT THEMSELVES
7
Q
Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘exemplary’ style
A
- think for themselves, have positive energy, actively engaged
8
Q
Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘pragmatic survivor’ style
A
- only show minimal independent thinking, only get involved when they see the direction a situation is heading
- can often see things going bad before others can (best at surviving change in an organisation)
9
Q
What are Kouzes and Posner’s practices of exemplary leadership? Outline them.
A
- Model the way: leaders set an example for others to follow
- Inspire a shared vision: leaders enlist others in their plans
- Challenge the process: leaders seek change and ways to improve the organisation
- Enable others to lead: leaders foster collaboration
- Encourage the heart: leaders keep hope and determination alive. Rewards are shared
10
Q
Describe what the LPI is.
A
- K&P created the LPI to measure the 5 practices of exemplary leadership.
- LPI is a questionnaire containing 6 behavioural statements for each practice
- Statements rated on 10-point scale (1 = almost never, 10 = almost always)
- Leader completes LPI-Self
- 5-10 other people complete LPI-Observer about the leader
11
Q
Give examples of statements from the LPI.
A
- Sets a personal example of what is expected (Model)
- Describes a compelling image of the future (Inspire)
- Treats others with dignity and respect (Enable)
12
Q
Give supporting research about the effectiveness of the LPI.
A
- K&P involved 2876 managers and observers from a wide variety of organisations.
- Found that results between the managers and observers were similar in terms of rank order.
- No significant difference between genders
- Type of organisation didn’t significantly affect results
13
Q
What is the context behind Cuadrado et al.?
A
- Eagly et al. found that female leaders were evaluated poorly compared to men when they adopted stereotypically masculine leadership styles, when they were evaluated by men
- Men were not evaluated less favourably than women when they adopted stereotypically feminine leadership styles
- This led to the development of the role congruity theory of prejudice towards female leaders.
- Role congruity theory: **when men and women are evaluated less favourably when they are selected to perform a task not congruent to their gender””
14
Q
What is the aim of Cuadrado et al.?
A
To investigate whether female leaders are evaluated less favourably than male leaders when they adopt a stereotypically male leadership style.
15
Q
What are the hypotheses of Cuadrado et al.?
A
- Female leaders will be evaluated less favourably than male leaders when they adopt stereotypically male leadership style (autocratic and task-oriented).
- Male leaders will not be evaluated less favourably than female leaders when they adopt stereotypically female leadership style (democratic and relationship-oriented).
- Female leaders will be evaluated less favourably by male evaluators than female evaluators
- Male evaluators will receive similar evaluations from male and female evaluators
16
Q
What was the sample in Cuadrado et al.?
A
- 136 second-year social psychology students in the National Open University of Spain
- mean age: 29 years
- 53% women, 47% men
- participants received credit for participation
17
Q
What was the IV in Cuadrado et al.?
A
- Male leader, stereotypically male leadership style
- Male leader, stereotypically female leadership style
- Female leader, stereotypically male leadership style
- Female leader, stereotypically female leadership style
18
Q
What was the DV in Cuadrado et al.?
A
- 14 adjectives (7 positive, 7 negative) selected from previous research
- Leadership efficacy of supervisor
- Leadership capacity of supervisor
19
Q
Give 3 examples of the positive adjectives used in Cuadrado et al.
A
intelligent, honest, clever
20
Q
Give 3 examples of the negative adjectives used in Cuadrado et al.
A
careless, forgetful, bossy
21
Q
What was the CV in Cuadrado et al.?
A
- Standardisation of rating scales
- Standardisation of narrative
- Random allocation of participants into their groups to reduce participant variables
22
Q
What was the research method(s) and design of Cuadrado et al.?
A
- RM: experiment, with 4 experimental conditions
- Design: independent measures, with a 2x2 design (male vs female leadership style, male vs female leader)
- Data collection technique: structured questionnaire, with rating scales
23
Q
Describe the procedure of Cuadrado et al.
A
- Prior to the study, participants were randomly allocated to one of 4 experimental groups (34 in each condition)
- Study uses a narrative (written account) which describes the behaviour of a leader in an organisational setting
- Participants were told to imagine that they were apart of an emergency service in a public hospital. Because gender-neutral setting, where there’s doctors (stereotypically male role) and nurses (stereotypically female role)
- Participants were told to evaluate a supervisor occupying that position for a trial period. Only difference being gender & leadership style
- Participants told to complete anonymous questionnaire which was to help with evaluation process
- Questionnaire used range of different measures:
- List of 14 adjectives (7 pos, 7 neg). Ppts told to rate adjectives based on how well it applied to the supervisor. 7 point rating scale: 1 = never, 7, always
- Leadership effectiveness of supervisor: used 7-point rating scale - 1 = totally positive/agree, 7 = totally negative/disagree
* e.g. “How would you evaluate X’s general achievement as a supervisor?” - Leadership capacity of supervisor: used 7 point rating scale - 1 = totally positive/agree, 7 = totally negative/disagree
24
Q
What were the findings of Cuadrado et al?
A
- Independent of sex, leaders who adopt a stereotypically female leadership obtain significantly more favourable evaluations on all 3 dependent variables
Leadership style of stereotypically female score in:
Adjective list: 5.51
Leadership efficacy: 5.41
Leadership capacity: 5.48 - Both males and females received less favourable evaluations with male stereotypical leadership styles
(Therefore the results don’t support Hypothesis 1) - No differences in evaluations received by male and female leaders when they adopted stereotypical female styles Therefore results support Hypothesis 2
25
Q
Conclusions of Cuadrado et al.
A
- Males don’t favour leaders of their own sex
- Stereotypically female leadership styles are more valued than stereotypically male leadership styles in modern organisations.
26
Q
Methodological strengths of Cuadrado et al.
A
- Measurements used for dependent variables produce quantitative data
* therefore objective, reliable - Uses standardised procedure
* e.g. uses standardised narrative and rating scales
* therefore reliable
27
Q
Methodological weaknesses of Cuadrado et al.
A
- Artificiality of task (lacks mundane realism)
* written account was used rather than emulating true dynamics of workplace
* therefore lowers validity - unrepresentative population
* uses psych students from one uni in Spain, therefore they may have more theoretical knowledge about role congruity theory
* therefore lowers population validity
28
Q
How can Cuadrado et al. be applied to everyday life?
A
- showed that stereotypical female management styles were evaluated more highly and seen as more effective than stereotypical male leadership styles.
- can be applied in the workforce and training targeted to ensure that managers, and potential managers, are aware of the different styles and how to get the best out of their workforce.
29
Q
Issues and Debates of Cuadrado et al.
A
- Reductionist: broke down leadership effectiveness and capacity into rating scales, and 14 adjectives. No insight into individual reasons behind rating an individual in a certain way
- Situational: female behaving in a stereotypically male way (incongruent of their gender) would make them likely to be evaluated poorly, as the behaviour is contradicts the perceived role of a woman which is more democratic and relationship-oriented.
- Nomothetic: uses experimental methodology including the use of structured questionnaires to measure the dependent variables.
- Idiographic approach can be used with qualitative methods like unstructured qs and interviews, to give insight into evaluations given
30
Q
According to Scouller, what are the dimensions of leadership?
A
- Motivating purpose: setting a purpose that inspires people towards a shared goal
- Upholding group unity & spirit
- Task progress results: checking pace & quality of progress towards goal
- Attending to individual effectiveness
(MUTA)
- These dimensions can only be achieved through working on the 3 leadership levels simultaneously.
31
Q
What are Scouller’s levels of leadership? Explain what they mean.
A
3Ps
- Public leadership: leader’s actions in a group setting (e.g. in a group meeting, trying to influence whole org.)
- Private leadership: leader’s 1-1 handling of the group
- Personal leadership: seen by their leadership, skills, self-mastery, presence (most influential of the 3)
32
Q
What categories are under public leadership?
A
34 behaviours placed in 5 categories (ABCES)
- Achieving group task
- Building trust and togetherness
- Creating peer pressure to ensure high performance standards
- Ensuring unity of purpose
- Setting a vision
33
Q
What categories are under private leadership?
A
14 behaviours placed in 2 categories (2Is)
- Individual task behaviour: through appraisal, discipline, review
- Individual building and maintenance: relationship-building and assessing people’s talents, commitment, etc.
34
Q
What categories are under personal leadership?
A
3 categories (TAS)
- Technical: individual and group psychology, and time-management
- Attitude: believing people are important & gain their trust
- Self-mastery theory: self-awareness and connecting with values to serve workers
35
Q
What are Muczyk & Reinmann’s styles of leadership behaviour? Define them.
A
- directive autocrat: strong direction from leaders, no employee participation in decision-making
- directive democrat: strong direction from leaders, high employee participation in decision-making
- permissive autocrat: far less close monitoring from leaders, no employee participation in decision-making
- permissive democrat: far less/no monitoring from leaders, high employee participation in decision-making
36
Q
When can directive autocrat style be used?
A
- quick action needs to be taken
- relationship between leaders and followers breaks down
37
Q
When can directive democrat style be used?
A
- quick action needs to be taken
- workforce has enough experience
38
Q
When can permissive autocrat style be used?
A
- speed of decision-making not important
- task is complex
39
Q
When can permissive democrat style be used?
A
- rules and regulations in place
- workforce has enough experience
40
Q
Define universalist theories
A
early and simple theories of leadership that search for a set of characteristics held by effective leaders (universal to all leaders)
41
Q
What are the 3 universalist theories?
A
- Great person (man) theory
- Charismatic leadership theory
- Transformational leadership theory
42
Q
Define ‘great person (man) theory’
A
- suggests that leaders are born, not made
- possesses certain characteristics that are inherited
(subjective, hard to measure)
43
Q
Define ‘charismatic leadership theory’
A
- charismatic leaders are popular, communicative and inspirational
- expects highest standards from themselves and others
44
Q
Define ‘transformational leadership theory’
A
- transformational leaders inspire positive change IN their followers
- role models to their followers, allowing them to take ownership of their work
45
Q
What are Warrilow’s characteristics of transformational leaders?
A
4Is:
- Inspirational motivation: degree to which leader has vision that appeals to followers
- Idealised influence: degree to which leader behaves in admirable way
- Intellectual stimulation: degree to which leader challenges and encourages creativity
4: Individualised consideration: degree to which leader attends to individualised needs – helps follower grow as a person
46
Q
Define behaviourist theories
A
- a response to the inability of universalist theories to isolate and measure inherited characteristics needed to be a leader
- focuses on observed behaviours (how someone must behave to be a successful leader)
47
Q
Describe Ohio Uni’s behaviourist explanation.
A
- researchers at Ohio Uni developed LBDQ to investigate behaviours exhibited by leaders
- questioned followers in military, education and industry with 5-point rating scale
- found 2 clusters of behaviours:
- Initiating (structural) behaviours: task-related behaviours where leader gives STRUCTURE to workforce
* sets expectations like performance standrds
* gives feedback
* coordinates group tasks within a group
* in extreme: lower worker autonomy; lower motivation - Consideration (nurturing) behaviours: people-related behaviours that focus on relationship & welfare of workers
* friendly, supportive, available
* leader looks for areas of improvement, and S&Ws
48
Q
Describe Michigan Uni’s behaviourist explanation.
A
- looked at impact of leader behaviour on smaller groups, using questionnaire similar to LBDQ
- found 2 types of behaviours:
- Product orientation (similar to initiating): workers are seen as means to an end; cogs in a machine
- Employee orientation (similar to consideration): takes interest in workers as human beings
49
Q
Define adaptive challenges (Heifetz)
A
challenges that arise when beliefs and values are challenged, and competing values and perspectives re-emerge
50
Q
Why are adaptive challenges difficult for workers?
A
- Workers have to adapt and change (learn new roles and responsibilities)
- Often, workers want leaders to take all responsibility
51
Q
What are Heifetz’ 6 principles in meeting adaptive challenges?
A
GRIM-GP
- Get on the balcony: step back and take objective view from distance to see bigger picture
- Regulate distress: allow views to be expressed, manage conflict
- Identify the adaptive challenge
- Maintain disciplined attention: confront different values, allowing all voices to be heard
- Give work back to the people: empower them to lead & problem-solve
- Protect voices of leadership from below: listen to & protect whistleblowers and creative deviants, as they can show approach to change
