premed.pk test 2 Flashcards
what is a bacteriophage?
a virus that infects bacteria
which virus contains single stranded DNA?
parvo virus
how many tail fibers are attached to the end plate of a bacteriophage?
6
tail fibers: help phage attach to specific receptors on the surface of the bacterial host cell
the enzymes integrase, protease, and reverse transcriptase are found in what type of virus?
retrovirus
each carrier in electron transport chain is first _______ then _______.
reduced, oxidized
what does electron transport chain explain?
mechanism of ATP synthesis
during oxidative phosphorylation, which is the final stage of cellular respiration, the ETC creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. this gradient drives the synthesis of ATP through the action of ATP synthase
what is the color of chlorophyll-b molecule?
yellowish-green
upon initial hydrolysis, what does starch break down into?
maltose (disaccharide composed of 2 glucose molecules bonded together)
human bone cells contain ______% water?
20%
(water is present in the extracellular matrix, filling the spaces between the collagen fibers and mineralized crystals)
condensation vs. hydrolysis
condensation (also called dehydration synthesis): chemical reaction where 2 molecules combine to form a larger molecule, typically accompanied by the release of water
hydrolysis: process of breaking down a molecule by adding water
they are reverse processes of each other
proteins are the main ____________ components of the cell?
structural
- involved in structural integrity and organization of the cells, structure & function of organelles
prokaryote vs. eukaryote
prokaryote: lacks true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
eukaryote: has a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in its cells
archaea
group of micro-organisms that are similar to, but evolutionary distinct from bacteria
- known for living in extreme conditions, such as hyper salty areas and high pressures
cell wall may be absent in which of the following?
bacteria & archaea
mesosomes
structures formed by the invagination of plasma membrane (plasma membrane folds in to create a pocket)
- associated with cell division and DNA replication in prokaryotic cells
3 double bound organelles
mitochondria, nucleus, and chloroplast
murein
also called peptidoglycan
main component of bacterial cell walls & provides rigidity and shape to the bacterial wall
common between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
ribosomes, cytoplasm, cell wall
the neurotransmitter active outside the central nervous system is
acetylcholine
hormone produced by placenta is
progesterone
meninges
3 layers of protective membrane that surround and encase brain and spinal cord
inner: pia mater
middle: arachnoid mater
outer: dura mater
round worms belong to which phylum?
Nematoda
enzymes lower the activation energy by
changing conditions within the active site
competitive inhibitors compete with?
substrate
Ernst Haeckel’s biogenetic law
“ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”
development of an individual organism (ontogeny) follows the same sequence of evolutionary changes seen in the evolutionary history of the species (phylogeny)
hepatic portal vein
carries digested food from intestines to the liver
(collects nutrients that are absorbed and transports them directly to the liver for processing and distributing)
hepatic artery & hepatic vein
hepatic artery: responsible for supplying oxygenated blood to the liver
hepatic vein: responsible for draining deoxygenated blood from the liver and returning it to the heart
antibodies
also called immunoglobulins
proteins produced by white blood cells in response to antigens
antigens
foreign substances that trigger an immune response
lymphatic vessels
- help transport a clear fluid called lymph throughout the body
- help maintain fluid balance, remove toxins and cellular waste, and support immune response by filtering out harmful substances
- also carry lymphocytes to where they are needed to fight infections and protect against diseases
where do the lymphatic vessels of the body empty lymph into the bloodstream at?
subclavian veins (located near the collarbone area)
where do the lymphatic vessels of the body empty lymph into the bloodstream at?
subclavian veins (located near the collarbone area)
pre-capillary sphincters
adjust the flow of blood in the capillaries, by constricting and contracting, based on tissue needs
difference b/w capillaries, arteries, and veins
capillaries: responsible for the exchange of substances between blood and tissues
arteries: carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
veins: carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart
osmotic pressure
pressure exerted by a solution when it is separated by a semi-permeable membrane from pure water
respiratory surfaces exhibit which characteristic?
permeability
(respiratory surfaces, such as alveoli in the lungs, must be permeable to allow the exchange of gases through diffusion)
gram-negative bacterial cell wall
a protective outer layer that some types of bacteria have
- protect bacteria and help maintain its shape
- consists of 2 layers
gram-positive vs. gram-negative bacteria
gram-positive: often associated with infections like throat infections, pneumonia, and certain types of food poisoning
gram-negative: linked to infections like urinary tract infections, respiratory infections, and some gastrointestinal infections
Nitrifying bacteria
special types of bacteria that help turn harmful substances called ammonia and nitrite into safer forms called nitrate
each human testes contains _______ lobules
250-300 lobules
lobules = small compartments for responsible for producing and storing sperm
leydig cells
also called interstitial cells
responsible for production and release of testosterone in males
avascular
meaning does not contain blood vessels
creatine-P04
also known as phosphocreatine
muscle component that acts as a store for energy
what is NOT found in skeletal muscle fibers in human
large amount of hemoglobin
hinge joint
type of joint that allows movement in just one direction, back and forth
- present in elbows and knees, move back and forth and not to the side
test cross
used to check the genotype of a trait
unknown x tt
hypophosphatemic rickets + inheritance pattern
rare condition where the bones in the body don’t develop properly due to low levels of phosphorus, leading to weak and soft bones
- X linked dominant
pedigree analysis
most commonly used method to trace mode of inheritance in humans
(circles and squares thing)
amu stands for
atomic mass unit
1/12th of a carbon
the probability of finding an electron at a certain position is possible due to which scientist’s principle?
Schrödinger
what did bohr theorize
electrons exist in orbitals
canal ray particles
positively charged ions that are produced in a discharge tube when a high voltage is applied across a gas at a low pressure
- mass to charge ratio determines deflection so the lighter the particles, the greater their deflection
partial pressure formula
partial pressure = total pressure x fraction of gas
if we want to raise the temp of one mole of an ideal gas by one kelvin, we have to provide how much energy?
0.0821 dm^3-atm
the process of heat flow between hotter and colder gases remains continued until all the molecules have equal
average translational kinetic energy
average translational kinetic energy
average energy associated with the movement of particles (atoms or molecules) as they move in a straight line in a given substance
average rotational kinetic energy
average energy associated with the spinning or rotational motion of particles (atoms or molecules) within a substance
kinetic vs potential energy
kinetic energy: energy of motion
potential energy: energy stored in an object due to its position or condition
vapor pressure
pressure exerted by the vapor (gas) of a substance when it’s in equilibrium with its liquid or solid form
(like the “push” of gas molecules escaping from a liquid or solid into the air above it)
- primarily determined by the temp of the liquid, the IMF’s, and the size of the molecule
unit cell
smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice that contains all the information about the crystal’s structure
(kinda like a building block that’s repeated over and over to make up a larger crystal)
atomic solid
individual atoms that are tightly packed together and arranged in a repeating pattern, like a grid
common ion effect
decrease in solubility of a salt in a solution that already contains an ion common to the salt
precipitation occurs if the ionic concentration is
more than ksp
(ionic concentration exceeds solubility product, so then excess ions come together and form solid precipitate)
Le Chatelier’s principle helps with
predicting the direction in which a system at equilibrium will shift in response to a change in conditions
to find overall order of a reaction
add up the individual orders
state function
properties that depend only on the current state of a system and are independent of the path taken to reach that state
an electrochemical cell is based on which reaction
redox reactions
(redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons between species, which is facilitated through the separation of oxidation and reduction half-reactions, which occur at different electrodes)
ionic character
the extent to which atoms share electrons (the extent that one atom takes electrons)
- high ionic character: giving and taking electrons, larger electronegativity difference
- low ionic character: sharing electrons equally, lower electronegativity difference
coordinate bonds
one atom provides electrons to another to form bond. like sharing electrons but one atom is providing both electrons
freon is commonly known as
refrigerant
refrigerant: substances used in refrigeration systems and air conditioning units to transfer heat from one area to another
conjugate bonds
special arrangement of alternating single and double bonds
