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NUMS chemistry Flashcards

1
Q

ionic, covalent, & coordinate covalent bonding

A

ionic bonding: 1 atom gives away an electron to another bond, creating bond bc of attraction b/w positively and negatively charged atom
- ex. NaCl bc becomes Na+ and Cl-

covalent bonding: 2 atoms share electrons equally to form a bond, each atom provides one electron to form the bond
- ex. H2O

coordinate covalent bonding: type of covalent bond where instead of both sharing equally, one atom donates both electrons
- ex. NH4Cl

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2
Q

how to identify a coordinate covalent bond

A
  • presence of a lone pair
  • complex ions or molecules: like [Cu(NH3)4]2+
  • NH4 compounds usually form coordinate covalent bonds
  • acid base reactions: coordinate covalent bonds are often formed in lewis-acid base reactions, where lewis base (electron donor) gives its electrons
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3
Q

carbonyl group + hydroxyl group =

A

carboxyl group

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4
Q

how are esters formed?

A

through a reaction between alcohol and carboxylic acid

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5
Q

how are amide groups formed?

A

through a reaction of carboxylic acid with amine

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6
Q

reduction of (carbonyl compounds) aldehydes and ketones forms

A

alcohols

aldehydes → primary alcohols
ketones → secondary alcohols

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7
Q

hydrolysis of nitrates produces

A

carboxylic acid

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8
Q

products of the oxidation of primary alcohols and then further oxidized

A

primary alcohols → aldehydes → carboxylic acids

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9
Q

oxidation of secondary alcohols produces

A

ketones

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10
Q

fermentation of sugar

A

sugar → ethanol (alcohol) & carbon dioxide (CO2)

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11
Q

alkanes, alkenes, & alkynes

A

alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons): all single bonds between carbon atoms (e.g., methane, ethane).
- end in -ane

alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons): at least one double bond between carbon atoms (e.g., ethene, propene).
- end in -ene

alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons): at least one triple bond between carbon atoms (e.g., ethyne).
- end in -yne

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12
Q

arenes/aryl hydrocarbon

A

aromatic hydrocarbons

  • containing benzene rings: aromatic functional group containing ring of 6 carbon atoms, characterized by alternating single and double bonds
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13
Q

what is isomerism and what are the 2 types?

A

isomerism: compounds have the same molecular formula but different structures or arrangements of atoms

structural isomerism: same molecular formula but differ in how their atoms are connected

stereoisomerism: same structural formula but differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms

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14
Q

3 types of structural isomerism

A

chain isomerism: carbon chain is arranged differently
- ex. butane (straight chain) vs. isobutane (a branched chain)

position isomerism: functional group (like -OH in alcohol) is in a different position on the carbon chain
- ex. 1-Butanol (OH on the first carbon) vs 2-Butanol (OH on the second carbon)

functional group isomerism: isomers have different functional groups
- ex. ethanol (alcohol) vs. dimethyl ether (ether)
- ethers and alcohols can do this and aldehydes and ketones

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15
Q

types of stereoisomers

A

geometrical isomerism (cis-trans isomerism): atoms are arranged differently around a double bond or ring
- ex. cis: both substituents (like H and Cl) are on the same side
- trans: substituents are on opposite sides

optical isomerism: molecules are mirror images of each other but can’t be superimposed
- ex. your left and right hands are optical isomers – mirror images but not identical when placed on top of each other (said to be chiral)

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16
Q

chiral & enantiomers

A

enantiomers: pairs of molecules that are mirror images of each other but cannot be superimposed on one another (meaning they won’t be the same if you place them on top of each other)
- enantiomers have the same boiling points, melting points, and density

chiral: carbon atom is chiral if it has 4 different groups attached to it
- chirality is the property that makes it non-superimposable on its mirror image

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17
Q

what is the difference between open-chain (acyclic) and closed-chain (cyclic) hydrocarbons?

A
  • open-chain hydrocarbons have a straight or branched chain of carbon atoms (they dont make a pentagon they stay open)
  • closed-chain hydrocarbons have carbon atoms arranged in a ring (closed chain) structure
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18
Q

aromatic hydrocarbons and their stability

A

are more stable because of resonance, where electrons are delocalized over the ring (because alternating double-single bonds)

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19
Q

3 types of closed-chain hydrocarbons

A

1. cycloalkanes: saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds in a ring structure
- general formula: Cn H2n
- start with cyclo and end with -ane

2. cycloalkenes: unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more double bonds in a ring structure
- start with cyclo end with -ene

3. aromatic hydrocarbons: special type with alternating single and double bonds in a ring (typically benzene rings)
- ex. benzene

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20
Q

general formulas of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes

A

alkanes: Cn H2n+2

alkenes:Cn H2n

**alkynes*: Cn H2n-2

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21
Q

2 reactions of alkanes

A
  • generally less reactive because they have only single bonds, but some key ones:

combustion: alkanes burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water
- ex.CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

halogenation (substitution reaction): one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane are replaced by halogen atoms (Cl, Br, F) under UV light
- significance: reaction is used to make chlorinated hydrocarbons

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22
Q

3 reactions of alkenes & alkynes

A
  • more reactive due to the presence of double and triple bonds

hydrogenation: addition of hydrogen across a double or triple bond to convert alkenes to alkanes and alkynes to alkenes
- ex. CH2 + H2 → CH3CH3

halogenation: Addition of halogens (like Br₂) across double or triple bonds, leading to
dihalides (2 halogen atoms attached adjacent to each other on a carbon)

hydration: addition of water across a double bond in the presence of an acid catalyst to form alcohols

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23
Q

physical properties of benzene

A

benzene: chemical formula C6H6, type of aromatic compound with 6 carbon atoms

  • less dense than water
  • boils at about 80 ºC
  • not soluble in water but is soluble in organic solvents like ethanol and ether
  • colorless liquid at room temperature
  • nonpolar
24
Q

5 reactions of benzene

A

mainly undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions because of stable aromatic ring - one of the hydrogen atoms on benzene ring is replaced by another atom or group

halogenation (adding halogens): benzene reacts with halogens like chlorine & bromine in the presence of a catalyst to form halo-benzene

nitration (adding nitrogen group): benzene reacts with nitric acid (HNO3) in the presence of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to form nitrobenzene

sulfonation (adding sulfonic acid group): benzene reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to form benzenesulfonic acid

friedel-crafts alkylation (adding alkyl groups): benzene reacts with an alkyl halide (like CH₃Cl) in the presence of a catalyst like aluminum chloride (AlCl₃) to form alkylbenzene.

friedel-crafts acylation (adding acyl groups): Benzene reacts with an acyl chloride (like CH₃COCl) in the presence of AlCl₃ to form acylbenzene.

25
Q

which reaction differentiates alcohols and phenols?

A

halogenation

  • phenols react with bromine water to give a white precipitate. alcohols do not have any reaction with bromine water
26
Q

generic formula of carboxylic acids and esters

A

Cn H2n O2

27
Q

ideal gas behavior + most ideal gas

A

low IMF’s: weaker the attraction b/w molecules, more ideal the gas behaves

small molecular size: smaller molecules behave more ideally b/c volume is negligible

most ideal gas is He

  • not hydrogen b/c exists as diatomic but He exists by itself. is second on the periodic table
28
Q

unit of rate and unit of rate constants + reaction order and all that stuff

A

reaction order: overall reaction order is sum of exponents in rate law, determined by experimental data of how rate changes as concentration changes

unit of rate: M/s

zero order: rate does not depend on concentration of the reactant
- k units: M/s
- reaction doubled = no effect on rate

first-order: rate is directly proportional to the concentration of the reactant
- k units: 1/s
- reaction doubled = rate doubles

second order: rate is proportional to the square of the concentration of the reactant (
- k units: 1/M·s
- rate double = reaction increase by factor of 4

third order: k units are 1/M²·s
- rate double = reaction increase by factor of 8 (cubed)

29
Q

which increases down the group for alkali metals?

A

reactivity b/c gets larger so harder to hold onto electrons and they can react more

30
Q

stoichiometry is defined as

A

the relationship b/w quantities of substances in a chemical reaction

31
Q

how to tell which compound is more/less ionic?

A

more covalent character = less ionic

more covalent character: small and highly charged

basically, ionic character decreases as you move left to right and increases as you move top to bottom of periodic table

32
Q

most abundant naturally occurring gas

A

nitrogen

N2 - 78% of air
O2 - 21% of air
Ar - 0.93% (third most abundant)

33
Q

how many times heavier is a proton compared to an electron?

A

1836 times heavier

34
Q

formula for wood spirit

A

wood spirit = methanol b/c earliest method of it was by destructive distillation of wood

formula = CH3OH

35
Q

bond energy

A

bond energy: amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds in a molecule

  • higher bond energy = stronger bond

shorter bond length due to size of molecule = greater bond energy

more polar (more electronegative) = more bond energy

ex. HF has greater bond energy than HCl

36
Q

maximum density of water

A

occurs at 4ºC

  • water has a unique property where its density increases as it cools down from a higher temp, but only up to 4ºC
  • below 4°C, water starts to expand again as it continues to cool, which is why ice is less dense than liquid water
37
Q

geometric isomerism is shown by

A

alkenes (double bonds)

  • geometric isomerism is most present in C=C bonds b/c of their inability to rotate relative to one another about the double bond

geometric isomerism is the cis and trans one

38
Q

Cannizzaro reaction

A

involves transforming non-enolizable aldehydes (aldehydes without alpha-hydrogens= hydrogens attached to the carbon next to the carbonyl group) into alcohol and carboxylic acid salts

50% NaOH is usually used to initiate this reaction

39
Q

aldol condensation reaction

A

used to create larger molecules by joining 2 smaller molecules (typically aldehydes or ketones) together

how it works: two molecules of an aldehydes or ketones w/ alpha hydrogens react in the presence of a base

  • forms a new carbon-carbon bond between them, creating a larger molecule
40
Q

carbonyl molecules

A

chemically organic functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom –> [C=O]

simplest carbonyl groups are aldehydes [R-C=O-H] and ketones [R-C=O-R] usually attached to another carbon compound

41
Q

clemenson reduction (clemenson condensation reaction)

A

used to remove oxygen from a carbonyl group (like in aldehydes or ketones) and turn it into a simple hydrocarbon using an acid

reaction uses zinc amalgam (Zn(Hg)) and hydrochloric acid (HCl)

42
Q

wolff-kishner reduction

A

similar to clemmensen reduction, it removes oxygen from a carbonyl group to turn it into a hydrocarbon, but using a base instead of acid

reaction involves treating the carbonyl compound with hydrazine (NH₂NH₂) and a strong base like KOH

43
Q

esterification

A

process of combining an organic acid (RCOOH) with an alcohol (ROH) to form an ester (RCOOR) and water

occurs in the presence of carboxylic acid and alcohols

44
Q

what is NaOH and AlCl₃ commonly known/used for in chemical reactions

A

AlCl₃ (Aluminum Chloride): often used in Friedel-Crafts reactions, which involve attaching alkyl or acyl groups to a benzene ring

NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide): a strong base known to break down compounds, which might lead you to think it could simplify larger molecules into smaller molecules

45
Q

benzene can be prepared from sodium benzoate by reaction with

A

NaOH

producing a simple molecule from a more complex one so need a strong base known to break down compounds

chlorobenzenes and cumene are both complex molecules & would be unlikely that you need them to produce a simple molecule like benzene

46
Q

Hess’s Law

A

states that the total enthalpy change (heat content) for a chemical reaction is the same, no matter how many steps or stages the reaction is carried out in

application: used to calculate the heat of a reaction that is difficult to measure directly by adding up the heats of reactions that are easier to measure

47
Q

henry’s law

A

states that amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid

According to Henry’s Law, if you increase the pressure of the gas over the liquid, more of the gas will dissolve in the liquid

formula: C = kP

C = concentration of gas in the liquid
k = henry’s law constant (specific to each gas-liquid pair)
P = partial pressure of the gas

48
Q

s block, p block, d block, and f block elements

A

s block: groups 1 and 2 and helium

p block: groups 12-18 (up to halogens, starting from Boron)

d block: groups 3 to 12 (the transition metals)

f block: lanthanides and actinides (usually shown below the main table)

49
Q

bond angles & hybridizations in alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes

A

alkanes (single bonds):
- each carbon is sp³ hybridized
- bond angle: 109.5º

alkenes (double bonds):
- each carbon in double bond is sp² hybridized
- bond angle: 120º

alkynes (triple bonds):
- each carbon in triple bond is sp hybridized
- bond angle: 180º

50
Q

mass of the following elements (estimate):
H
He
C
N
O
F
P
S
Cl

A

H - 1
He - 4
C - 12
N - 14
O - 16
F - 19
P - 31
S - 32
Cl - 35.5

51
Q

factors that affect bond length

A

pressure of multiple bonds: multiple bonds (double, triple) have shorter bond lengths compared to single bonds

nature of hybridization: as s character increases (sp, sp2, sp3..), bonded atoms pull closer

difference in electronegativity: more electronegative atom pulls electrons closer, shortening bond length

ionization energy is energy required to remove an electron - which affects reactivity of atom, but not directly the bond length

52
Q

VESPER explains?

A

only shapes, not bond energy

  • used to predict gerotrey of molecules
53
Q

acyl group

A

refers to a carbonyl group attached to an alkyl group

commonly associated with ketones and aldehydes

54
Q

boiling point of ether is less compared to alcohols and phenols due to

A

intermolecular forces

55
Q

factors that influence vapor pressure

A

temperature: as temp increases, vapor pressure increases b/c more molecules escape into vapor phase

IMF’s: as IMF’s get stronger, vapor pressure decreases b/c fewer molecules escape

density of liquid: vapor pressure not directly dependent on density, but density can influence how many molecules are in a given volume

surface area of liquid does not have an impact on vapor pressure b/c not influenced by size or shape of liquid’s exposed surface area

56
Q

lattice energy trend

A

smaller the ion & higher the charge, greater the lattice energy

57
Q
A

mdcat (11 decks)

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