⭐• Pragmatics Terminology Flashcards
What is pragmatics?
The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used such as the taking of* turns in conversation*, text organization, presupposition, and implicature.
What is prescriptivism?
The belief that a particular form of language/ manner of speaking is superior to another and that languages’ structure is irrevocable and should not be changed at all
What is descriptivism?
The analysis of how language is used by speakers/ writers that is non-judgemental
What is an implication?
When a conclusion can be drawn from something although its not explicitly stated
What is implicature?
The idea of conveying meaning indirectly through conversations
What is a figure of speech?
A word or phrase that intentionally deviates from straight-forward language use
What is tone?
A particular quality - a way of sounding as an expressive meaning or feeling
What is undertone?
An unspoken implied meaning or emotion
What is perception?
The ability to see/ become aware of something through the senses
What does it mean when something is Ambiguous?
When something is open to more than one interpretation, not having 1 obvious/ direct meaning
What is presupposition?
Thinking tactically beforehand/ at the beginning of an action
What is a presumption?
An idea that is taken to be true on a basis of probability
What is assumption?
Something that is thought to be true, even without truth
What is sarcasm?
The use of irony to mock someone or something, usually to evoke a laughing response
What is Irony?
The expression of ones meaning by language that seems deliberately contrary - typically for humerous effect
What does it mean when something is humerous?
When something catalyses laughter or amusement
What does it mean when language is offensive?
Offensive language is that which is percieved as rude or hurtful towards a person/ group of people
What is pejorative?
Expressing worthlessness or disapproval
What is an example of a pejorative?
Calling someone a looser
What is (Giles 1973) the acommodation of language?
The behavioural changes that people make to attune their communication to their interlocutor + the extent to which a person believes their interlocutor is attuning to them
What is convergence?
A strategy where nearby individuals adapt to communicative behaviours in a way to become more similar/ appeal to the person they are speaking to
What is Divergence?
When you dont want to sound similar to the person you are speaking to. Can include accentuations of speech - used to display valued distincitveness/ separate speaker from person/people
What is echoalia?
The involuntary repitition of an interlocutors behaviour/ language
What are 4 paralinguistic features?
- Speech rate
- Pauses
- Utterance length
- Pitch
What is paralinguistics?
How people communicate without using words or additional aspects of vocal communication such as signals beyond the basic verbal message or speech e.g. ‘umm’ or the pitch of speaking (things that infer additonal meanings during a convorsation without explicitly saying what that desired meaning was)
What is intonation?
The pitch and volume of a person’s speech.
What is overt prestiege?
Vocabulary/ dialect that reflects the culturally dominant group, commonly those in power or authority
What is covert prestiege?
Vocabulary/ dialect use related to a region or culture that is used to distinguish a groip from the culturally dominant one as an act of individuality as a group/culture/region
What is a declarative?
A sentence in which the speaker is making a statement, to declare something
What is an imperative?
A sentence in whcih the speaker is delivering a command or instruction
What is an interrogative?
A sentence in which the speaker is asking a question OR a rhetorical question
What is an exlamatory scentence?
A sentence in which the speaker is expressing intense emotion or feeling - usually therfore increased volume
What is an interlocuter?
A person who takes part in dialogue/ convorsations (the person somebody else is speaking to)
What is a locutionary act?
The act of producing the performance of an utterance (speaking)
What is a Illocutinoary act?
A speech act that involves performing an action with the intention conveyed by the speaker
What are some examples of an illocutionary act?
- Asserting
- Questioning
- Exclaiming
- Threatening
- Promising
- Apologizing
- Commanding
- Warning
- Suggesting
- Requesting
What is a perlocutionary act?
The effect that an utterance has on a listener
What are some examples of an perlocutionary act?
- Persuading
- Convincing
- Scaring
- Enlightening
- Inspiring
- Ridiculing
What is (Searle 1969) a Declaration?
Words that change a situation in some way immediately after its utterance
What is (Searle 1969) an Expressive?
Words that express how the speaker feels about a situation
What is (Searle 1969) an Assertive?
Words that are statements that provide information, state a conclusion or express a beleif of a speaker
What is (Searle 1969) a Directive?
Words that attempt to make the adresse preform an action
What is (Searle 1969) a Commissive?
Words that commit the speaker to doing something in the future
What is an example of (Searle 1969) a Declaration?
- ‘I now pronounce you husband and wife’
- ‘You are fired’
What is an example of (Searle 1969) an Expressive?
- thanking
- apologising
- welcoming
- deploring (strongly disapproving)
What is an example of (Searle 1969) an Assertive?
- suggesting
- putting forward
- swearing
- boasting
- concluding
What is an example of (Searle 1969) a Directive?
- asking
- ordering
- requesting
- inviting
- advising
- begging
What is an example of (Searle 1969) a Commissive?
- promising
- planning
- vowing
- betting
What are Grice’s maxims (definition)?
A set of linguistic ‘rules’ by which anyone wishing to engage in communication should follow and assume others would also be following them
What are all 4 of Grice’s maxims?
- Maxim of quality
- Maxim of relevance
- Maxim of quantity
- Maxim of manner
What is the Maxim of quality?
To make your contribution to a convorsation a true one - not saying what you believe to be false or what you lack evidence to support validity
What is the Maxim of relevance?
To make your contribution to a convorsation relevant to what is being discussed
What is the Maxim of quantity?
To make your contribution to a convorsation as informative as required - to not make contribution overwhelming by including more information than is required
What is the Maxim of manner?
To make your contribution to a convorsation brief, orderly and bereft of ambiguity - to avoid obscurity of expression (avoid things that are unknown)
What is violating a maxim?
Breaking the rules of a maxim in such a way that truthful/ sucsessful commincation breaks down and fails.
Not overtly intentional
What is flouting a maxim?
Intentionallyplaying with the rules of a maxim to break them/ to create new meanings
What are Lakoff’s (1973) Maxims of politeness?
- dont impose (be unwelcome)
- give the interlocuter options
- make interlocuter feel good
What is Levinson & Brown’s (1975) Face Politeness Theory
A theory that explains how people interact politely, alongside the concept of ‘face’ - based on the idea that we all have a face (self esteem) which we attempt to protect to avoid awkwardness in convorstation and is made up of a positive and negative component
What is saving face?
Utilising stratagies to avoid embarassment, offense or awkwardness to maintatin dignity/ preserve ones reputation
What is a face-threatening act?
When communiaction can damage a persons sense of face (self esteem) or affect the persons postitive or negative face
When we admit and ____________ for our shortcomings, we commit _____-_____________ acts directed at ____________
When we admit and apologise for our shortcomings, we commit face-threatening acts directed at ourselves
What is ignorance?
Lack of knowledge or information about something or labelling something as rude/ inconsiderate
What is positive face?
An individuals desire to be liked and appreciated by others, similar to a persons self-esteem
What is negative face?
An individuals desire to protect their personal rights, such as their freedom of speech/ action
What are the 5 proposed politness stratagies (used to avoid embarassming sombody or making others feel uncomforatable)
- positive politeness
- negative politeness
- corrective processes
- bald on-record
- off-record (indirect)
What is a corrective process?
A process used if a threat to either face cannot be avoided to restore the desired expressive order and flow of events e.g. apologising
What are the 4 phases of a corrective process/ ann apology?
- PHASE #1: individual takes responsibility for their behavioural failure
- PHASE #2: individual sends signals of regret to addressee
- PHASE #3: individual offers compensation
- PHASE #4: addressee accepts the offer
What is the condition for a sucsessful corrective process/ apology?
Corrective processes only work if ALL phases have been undergone successfully
What is positive politeness?
Appealing to somones positive face to increase their self-esteem when asking something of them/ engaging in convorsation to increase chances of them doing that for you or liking you/ responding back positively
What is negative politeness?
Appealing to somebodys negative face to maek them feel like they havent been taken advantage of when asking something of them/ engaging in convorsation to increase chances of them doing that for you or liking you/ responding back positively
What is bald on-record
When a user doesnt attempt to limit the threat to a listeners face due to a sense of urgency. Getting straight to the point, utilising no additional language to help soften the message In order to protect, we sometimes have to hurt face
What is off-record (indirect)
Being seriously indirect, the speaker typically avoids saying the potentially face-threatening act altogether.
What is a preventative act?
So-called announcements about potential awkward incidents that may take place in a flow of events - tactfulness
What are 3 postitives to a preventative act?
- getting recognition for being honest
- avoiding confusion by not using unecessary language
- putting public pressure on a listener when required
What is a defensive strategy?
Include the avoidance of particular topics and to suppress ones emotions the moment they do not seem appropriate for the situation
In off-record (indirect) and defensive stratagies what is required of the listener from a speakers ambiguous/ implied intentions (done to not impose)
As intentions are implied in order to not impose on a listener, these stratagies are heavily relient on pragmatics as its up to a listener to interpret implied intentions alone
What is the main issue with off-record (indirect) and defensive stratagies when it comes to the listener having to intepret speaker on their own?
Interpretations can be incorrect, which can lead to a misunderstanding
What is a postitive to off-record (indirect) and defensive stratagies?
The speaker never actually asks for anything, therefore impostition on a listener is reduced
What is a criticism of face/politeness theory?
That the theory constructed by Brown & Levinson was ethnocentric as it fails to recognise that politeness can vary around the world (Western-centric bias)
What are the three sociological variables in face/ politeness theory/
- Social distance
- Power differance
- Seriouness
