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BIO 1210 > Plant Development: Angiosperms > Flashcards

Plant Development: Angiosperms Flashcards

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1
Q

How many essential elements do plants require?

A

17

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2
Q

Define essential element

A

A chemical that is required for a plant to complete its life cycle

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3
Q

Define macronutrients

A

essential elements required by plants in relatively large quantities

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4
Q

How many macronutrients are there?

A

9

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5
Q

What are the 6 macronutrients and what is their main collective function?

A
  1. C
  2. H
  3. O
  4. N
  5. S
  6. P

They are major components of organic compounds that form the plant structure

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6
Q

What are the other 3 macronutrients?

A
  1. Ca
  2. K
  3. Mg
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7
Q

List the 9 macronutrients

A
  1. C
  2. H
  3. O
  4. N
  5. P
  6. S
  7. Ca
  8. Mg
  9. K
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8
Q

Define micronutrients

A

essential elements required by plants in relatively small quantities

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9
Q

What are the 8 micronutrients?

A
  1. Cl
  2. Fe
  3. Mn
  4. B
  5. Zn
  6. Cu
  7. Ni
  8. Mo
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10
Q

T or F: plant life cycles have alternation of generations of 1 unicellular stage and 1 multicellular stage

A

FALSE.

Life cycles have alternations of generations between 2 multicellular stages

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11
Q

What are the two generations of life cycles?

A

Haploid gametophyte

Diploid sporophyte

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12
Q

Is the sporophyte generation haploid or diploid?

A

Diploid

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13
Q

Is the gametophyte generation haploid or diploid?

A

Haploid

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14
Q

What does the sporophyte stage produce? And through which process?

A

Diploid sporophyte produces SPORES by MEIOSIS

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15
Q

Are spores diploid or haploid? Explain

A

Haploid because they are produced when diploid sporophytes undergo meiosis

Meiosis = one 2n cell –> four 1n cells

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16
Q

By which process do spores grow? And what will they turn into?

A

Haploid spores grow by MITOSIS into the MULTICELLULAR GAMETOPHYTE

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17
Q

Why does the gametophyte have the ploidy it has?

A

The HAPLOID gametophyte is produced when the haploid spores undergo mitosis.

Mitosis = one 1n cell –> two 1n cells

So the gametophyte must be haploid

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18
Q

What does the gametophyte produce and by which process?

A

Produces gametes by mitosis

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19
Q

What ploidy do gametes have? Explain

A

they are haploid because they are produced by the haploid gametophyte which undergoes mitosis

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20
Q

What forms when two gametes fuse together?

A

A unicellular, diploid zygote

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21
Q

What ploidy will the zygote have?

A

Diploid

because two 1n cells fuse = 2n

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22
Q

By which process will the zygote grow? What will it become?

A

Diploid zygote grows by mitosis to become the diploid sporophyte

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23
Q

Why does the sporophyte have the ploidy it has?

A

The sporophyte is diploid because it develops from the DIPLOID zygote undergoing mitosis

Mitosis = one 2n cell –> two 2n cells

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24
Q

Which stage is dominant in angiosperms?

A

The diploid sporophyte stage

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25
Q

T or F: angiosperms are homosporous

A

FALSE.

They are heterosporous

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26
Q

Define heterosporous

A

Angiosperms produce microspores (male) and megaspores (female) that differ from one another

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27
Q

Define flowers

A

The reproductive shoots of angiosperm sporophytes (2n) that contain petals to attract pollinators

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28
Q

Define stamen and list the parts of the stamen

A

The male reproductive structure of flowers that includes:

  • anther
  • filament
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29
Q

Define pistil and list the parts of the pistil

A

the female reproductive structure of flowers that includes:

  • stigma
  • style
  • ovary
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30
Q

What are the four components of flowers?

A
  1. pistil
  2. stamen
  3. petals
  4. sepals
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31
Q

What function does the filament have?

A

Filaments hold up the anther

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32
Q

How many microsporangia does each anther contain?

A

2-4

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33
Q

Define microsporangia

A

pollen sacs contained in the anther of flowers

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34
Q

What ploidy are microsporocytes?

A

diploid

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35
Q

Where are microsporocytes contained?

A

within the microsporangium

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36
Q

Which process do microsporocytes undergo to produce what?

A

DIPLOID microsporocytes undergo meiosis to produce HAPLOID microspores

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37
Q

How many microspores will each microsporocyte produce?

A

4 haploid microspores

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38
Q

Each microspore will undergo which process to become what?

A

Each haploid microspore undergoes MITOSIS to become a (haploid) MALE GAMETOPHYTE

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39
Q

What ploidy will the male gametophyte be?

A

Haploid

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40
Q

What are the two cells that compose the male gametophyte?

A
  1. tube cell

2. generative cell

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41
Q

What occurs during the maturation of the male gametophyte?

A
  1. generative cell passes into tube cell
  2. spore wall is completed
  3. tube cell now has freestanding cell within it
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42
Q

What three things compose a pollen grain

A

composed of a spore wall, generative cell, and a tube cell

the male gametophyte

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43
Q

What ploidy is a pollen grain?

A

haploid

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44
Q

After a pollen grain is released from the microsporangium, what occurs?

A
  1. pollen is ideally transferred to a stigma of the same species
  2. the tube cell produces pollen tube that grows down the style and towards the ovary
  3. inside the tube cell, the generative cell divides by MITOSIS and produces two sperm cells
  4. sperm is released near the female gametophyte
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45
Q

Which part of the male gametophyte/pollen grain divides by which process to produce what product?

A

The GENERATIVE CELL divides by MITOSIS to produce 2 SPERM CELLS

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46
Q

How quickly can the pollen tube grow through the style?

A

~1 or more cm/hour

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47
Q

Define spore wall

A

Consists of material produced by the microspore and anther

Helps with dispersal and protects sperm against desiccation

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48
Q

Which 4 structures make up an ovule?

A

megasporangium

megasporocyte

integuments

micropyle

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49
Q

What is the female gametophyte?

A

The embryo sac

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50
Q

What does the ovule contain that surrounds the megasporangium?

A

2 integuments

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51
Q

What will the integuments develop into?

A

the seed coat if the egg is fertilizd

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52
Q

What is the micropyle?

A

The gap between the integuments that allows the tube cell to enter the ovule

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53
Q

Where are the megasporocytes located?

A

Within the megasporangium of the ovule

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54
Q

One megasporocyte will undergo which process to produce what?

A

Will undergo MEIOSIS to produce 4 HAPLOID MEGASPORES

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55
Q

What happens to the megaspores produced by the megasporocyte?

A

3 of the 4 will degenerate because the fourth has taken all of the cytoplasm

The surviving megaspore will continue on

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56
Q

What happens to the surviving megaspore?

A

It will divide by mitosis BUT NOT CYTOKINESIS to produce ONE CELL WITH 8 HAPLOID NUCLEI

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57
Q

T or F: the surviving megaspore will divide by mitosis and cytokinesis

A

FALSE. It will divide by mitosis but not cytokinesis

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58
Q

What is the result of the division of the megaspore?

A

It will divide by mitosis to produce:

one cell with 8 haploid nuclei

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59
Q

What happens to the product of the megaspore when cytokinesis occurs?

A

Membranes will form by cytokinesis between the nuclei to form

7 cells, one of which will have 2 nuclei

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60
Q

What are the 2 nuclei called?

A

The polar nuclei in the central cell

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61
Q

What determines what each cell will become in the megasporangium?

A

A gradient of the hormone Auxin will determine what each cell will become

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62
Q

Where does auxin originate?

A

near the micropyle

63
Q

Define synergids

A

two cells by the micropyle that are beside the egg and help attract the pollen tube to the egg

64
Q

What is the female gamete?

A

the egg

65
Q

Define antipodal cells

A

Three cells at opposite end of the gametophyte from the micropyle that have an unknown function and usually degenerate

66
Q

Define polar nuclei

A

two nuclei that share the cytoplasm of the large central cell

67
Q

What will the polar nuclei become if fertilization occurs?

A

develop into the source of nutrition for the embryo if fertilization occurs

68
Q

Define pollination

A

the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma, this can occur by wind, animals, or water

69
Q

Define pollen

A

Microscopic particles that contain sperm

70
Q

Approximately how many angiosperm species pollinate by wind?

A

~20%

71
Q

Approx how many angiosperm species pollinate by water?

A

<1%

72
Q

Approx how much of angiosperm pollination is biotic?

A

~80%

73
Q

How does biotic pollination work?

A

Uses animals to transfer pollen to another flower

can be through trickery, reward, can sometimes be fatal

74
Q

If pollen transfer is successful, what occurs?

A

The pollen grain produces the pollen tube which will grow to the ovary

75
Q

Define double fertilization

A

the union of one sperm with the angiosperm egg’s nucleus and one sperm with the 2 polar nuclei of the central cell

76
Q

What is the purpose of double fertilization?

A

To ensure resources aren’t wasted developing endosperm in ovum that has unfertilized eggs

If the polar nuclei are fertilized, it is highly likely that the egg is also fertilized

77
Q

T or F: eggs have a block to polyspermy, but the central cell does not

A

True

78
Q

What occurs first when the pollen lands on a suitable stigma?

A

It will absorb water (imbibition) and germinate by producing the pollen tube which will grow towards the ovary

79
Q

After the pollen tube begins to grow, what happens?

A

the nucleus of the generative cell divides by mitosis to produce 2 sperm

80
Q

How does the pollen tube ‘know’ how to find the micropyle?

A

Chemical attractants from the synergids cause the tip of the pollen tube to grow towards the micropyle

81
Q

How does the pollen tube pass into the embryo sac?

A

One synergid will die to allow space

82
Q

What is the ploidy of a fertilized central cell?

A

Triploid

the fusion of one 1n sperm cell with the two polar nuclei (1n + 1n) = 3n

83
Q

What will the fertilized central cell become?

A

the endosperm

84
Q

Define endosperm

A

the food storing tissue of the seed that develops from the central cell

ex. stores carbs, proteins, or fats stored here

85
Q

After fertilization, what will the ovules develop into?

A

Seeds

86
Q

After fertilization, what will the ovary develop into?

A

Fruit

87
Q

After fertilization, what will the integuments develop into?

A

Seed coat

88
Q

After fertilization, what happens to the micropyle?

A

It closes

89
Q

After fertilization, what will happen to the triploid nucleus of the central cell?

A

it will divide by mitosis and form a multinucleate cell

cytokinesis will partition the cytoplasm and form the endosperm

90
Q

When does embryo development begin?

A

When mitosis asymmetrically splits the zygote into the basal cell and the terminal cell

91
Q

Is the division of the zygote into the basal cell and terminal cells asymmetrical or symmetrical? Which is larger?

A

Asymmetrical

The basal cell is larger

92
Q

Define basal cell

A

The larger cell that is produced by the mitotic division of the zygote

93
Q

What is the function of the basal cell?

A

It produces the suspensor which anchors the embryo to the parent plant and transfers nutrients from the parent and from the endosperm to the embryo

94
Q

Define terminal cell

A

The smaller cell that is produced by the mitotic division of the zygote

95
Q

What will the terminal cell become?

A

The embryo

96
Q

What does the asymmetrical division of the zygote establish?

A

Polarity so that the typical root-shoot axis of plants establishes

97
Q

What happens if the first mitotic division of the zygote is symmetrical?

A

The embryo develops as a ball and has neither roots nor leaves (shoots)

98
Q

What does the terminal cell develop into?

A

The terminal cell divides several times to form the spherical pro-embryo which attaches to the suspensor

99
Q

What are cotyledons and when do they form?

A

Cotyledons are seed leaves, the first leaves that develop

they begin to form after the terminal cell develops into the spherical pro-embryo

100
Q

What happens when the embryo elongates?

A

The shoot and root apices form with apical meristems for primary growth

101
Q

Define apical meristems

A

the point of primary growth on the shoots and roots of plants

Tissue in tips of roots and buds of shoots that allows for primary growth

102
Q

Define dormancy

A

When the embryo stops growing and its metabolic reactions nearly stop

103
Q

T or F: seed dormancy can last between a few days to thousands of years depending on the species

A

True

104
Q

Mature seeds dehydrate until only about ___% of its weight is water

A

5-15%

105
Q

What are 5 examples of specific cues that can break dormancy?

A

Heavy rainfall for desert plants

Intense heat or smoke where fires are common

Exposure to prolonged cold in areas with harsh winters will trigger spring germination

Light for plants that can only grow through small amounts of soil

Digestive tract of animals can cause the seed coat to weaken

106
Q

Why is seed dormancy adaptive?

A

The seeds can wait for the best conditions to increase the chance of plant survival

Soil will have a seed bank to restock after disturbances

107
Q

Define germination

A

Where seed, spore, or pollen starts to sprout and grow

108
Q

When does germination begin in seeds?

A

When dry seeds imbibe (uptake water) causing the seed to expand and rupture the seed coat

109
Q

What does imbibition trigger in seeds?

A

Water triggers metabolic changes in the embryo that cause it to start growing again

Enzymes digest stored nutrients in cotyledons or endosperm

Nutrients are transferred to growing parts of embryo

110
Q

What is the first organ to emerge from the seed?

A

The embryonic root (radicle)

111
Q

What is the name for the embryonic root?

A

Radicle

112
Q

What is the second organ to emerge from the seed?

A

The shoot tip that is protected by a cap

113
Q

What is primary growth?

A

Lengthwise increase of roots and shoots

114
Q

How does primary growth occur?

A

By division and differentiation of cells from apical meristems

115
Q

What type of growth occurs in herbaceous plants?

A

Primary growth

116
Q

What type of growth occurs in woody plants?

A

Primary and secondary growth

117
Q

What is the root cap?

A

It covers the tip of the root to protect the apical meristem as the roots push through soil during primary growth

118
Q

Where does growth occur in regards to the root cap?

A

Behind the root cap in three zones

119
Q

What are the three zones of root growth?

A
  1. zone of cell division
  2. zone of elongation
  3. zone of differentiation
120
Q

What occurs in the zone of cell division?

A

Includes the root apical meristem cells

new cells are produced in this region by mitosis and cytokinesis

121
Q

What occurs in the zone of elongation?

A

typically occurs a few mm behind zone of cell division

Most of cell growth occurs here pushing the root tip further into the soil

122
Q

Which of the 3 zones does most of the cell growth occur?

A

Zone of elongation

123
Q

How long can cells elongate in the zone of elongation?

A

> 10x their original size

124
Q

Growth in the zone of elongation occurs during which phases?

A

G1, S, and G2 of interphase

125
Q

What occurs in the zone of differentiation?

A

Cells have specialized in structure and function at the end of the zone of elongation so the cells become distinct cell types in differentiation.

Root hairs form and grow here

126
Q

Which zone do cells become distinct cell types?

A

Differentiation

127
Q

Which zone do root hairs form and grow?

A

Differentiation

128
Q

What 4 tissues does primary growth produce?

A
  1. epidermis
  2. cortex
  3. vascular tissue
  4. endodermis
129
Q

T or F: an apical meristem is present at each shoot tip

A

True

130
Q

Define leaf primordia

A

the location of leaf development

fingerlike projections along the sides of apical meristems

131
Q

What causes shoot elongation?

A

The lengthening of the cells below the shoot tip between the internodes

132
Q

Where are axillary buds located in relation to apical meristems?

A

Some distance away because the closer an axillary bud is to an apical meristem, the more inhibited its growth is

133
Q

Define development

A

Specific series of changes by which cells form tissues, organs, and organisms that occurs because of genetic info, external environment and hormones

134
Q

Define growth

A

irreversible increase in size

135
Q

T or F: a single genotype can produce different phenotypes in different environments

A

true

136
Q

Does cell migration occur in plant and/or animal development?

A

Plant: no because of cell walls

Animal: yes (some)

137
Q

Does asymmetric morphogenesis occur in plant and/or animal development?

A

Plant: no

Animal: yes

138
Q

Can one cell from an adult produce an entire individual in plant and/or animal development?

A

Plant: yes

Animal: no

139
Q

Does differential gene expression occur in plant and/or animal development?

A

Both: yes

140
Q

Do transcription factors play a role in plant and/or animal development?

A

Both: yes

141
Q

Do plants and/or animals have the ability to develop throughout entire life?

A

Plant: yes (indeterminate growth) - plants can die back and regrow to survive adverse conditions (cannot move away)

animal: no (determinate growth) - animals can migrate or hibernate to avoid adverse conditions

142
Q

Can cells dedifferentiate and redifferentiate in plants and/or animals?

A

Plants: yes, changing cell types so that plant parts or entire plants can regrow

Animals: no, development is rigid and inflexible

143
Q

virtually every aspect of plant growth and development is under the control of what?

A

Hormones

144
Q

T or F: molecular processes underlying plant and animal responses are often heterologous

A

FALSE. often homologous

145
Q

What are hormones?

A

signalling molecules that are transported through plants to activate signal transduction pathways

146
Q

What are 4 types of plant hormones?

A
  1. auxin
  2. cytokinins
  3. gibberellins
  4. ethylene
147
Q

What are 3 roles of auxin?

A

to stimulate cell elongation in young shoots and roots

to sustain growth

to organize the body layout

148
Q

Where is auxin produced? where does it travel to?

A

Produced primarily in shoot tips

Travels from the shoot tips to the base at ~1cm/h

149
Q

What is the function of cytokinin?

A

A growth regulator that stimulates cytokinesis

150
Q

Where are cytokinins produced?

A

In actively growing tissues

151
Q

In correct ratios with auxin, what can cytokinin cause?

A

differentiation

152
Q

What is the function of gibberellins?

A

Works with auxin in stem elongation and fruit growth and breaks dormancy in seeds after imbibition

153
Q

What are 3 functions of ethylene?

A

Causes fruit to ripen which will cause the production of more ethylene

Causes shoots to thicken and grow sideways to get around obstacles when germinating

Causes death of cells (xylem, leaf drop in the fall)

154
Q

When is ethylene produced?

A

When plants are stressed

BIO 1210 (16 decks)

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