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BIO 1210 > Fertilization & Animal Development > Flashcards

Fertilization & Animal Development Flashcards

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1
Q

Define gametogenesis

A

The production of haploid cells (gametes) for sexual reproduction

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2
Q

Define spermatogenesis

A

The formation and development of the male gamete (sperm)

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3
Q

Approximately how many weeks does it take to make sperm?

A

~7 weeks

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4
Q

T or F: production of sperm in adult males is prolific and continuous

A

True

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5
Q

How many sperm per day does an adult male produce?

A

hundreds of millions of sperms

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6
Q

Define oogenesis

A

The development of mature eggs

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7
Q

Where do immature eggs form during oogenesis?

A

In the fetal ovary

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8
Q

When does the development of immature eggs during oogenesis stop? And when do they begin again?

A

Stop at prophase I of meiosis

One immature egg will resume meiosis per month after puberty has begun

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9
Q

What is a major difference between the development of mature gametes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis?

A

In spermatogenesis, all daughter cells develop into mature gametes

In oogenesis, almost all the cytoplasm goes to one daughter cell which will become the egg

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10
Q

When does spermatogenesis occur and for how long? Vs. oogenesis?

A

Spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood

Oogenesis completes some stages before birth and stops around age 50

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11
Q

What is a major difference between the production of sperm in spermatogenesis vs that of eggs in oogenesis?

A

Spermatogenesis produces mature sperm continuously and without pause through a male’s life

But oogenesis has long interruptions, only one egg matures per month.

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12
Q

Describe sperm

A

Small and motile male gametes that travel from a male to a female to find an egg.

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13
Q

Which structures are found in the ‘head’ of a sperm?

A

the head of sperm encloses the:

haploid nucleus and the acrosome

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14
Q

Define acrosome

A

a special vesicle in sperms that contain enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the egg

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15
Q

What is located behind the head of a sperm? And what is the function?

A

Mitochondria to provide ATP which power the movement of the flagellum tail of sperm (allow the sperm to be motile)

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16
Q

Describe eggs

A

The large and nonmotile female gametes that remain within a female to carry out their function

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17
Q

Do egg or sperm have a larger cytoplasmic volume?

A

Egg

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18
Q

How come the zygote usually ends up with much more of, or only, the mother’s mitochondria?

A

Because the cytoplasm of the zygote is mostly from the egg

Eggs have a much larger cytoplasmic volume than sperms

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19
Q

Define fertilization

A

The formation of a diploid zygote from the fusion of a haploid egg and sperm

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20
Q

Which animal species has fertilization been highly studied in? Why?

A

Sea urchins

Because they release their gametes for external fertilization in the water column

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21
Q

Describe acrosomal reaction (sea urchins)

A

When a vesicle at the top of the sperm head (acrosome) releases hydrolytic enzymes by exocytosis to partially digests the egg’s shell or ECM

Then the acrosomal process (part of the sperm) elongates and penetrates the jelly coat of the egg

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22
Q

When is the acrosomal reaction triggered?

A

When the head of the sperm contacts part of the egg’s ECM

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23
Q

___ molecules on the tip of the ____ process bind to receptors on the plasma membrane of the ____

A

PROTEIN molecules on the tip of the ACROSOMAL process bind to the receptors on the plasma membrane of the EGG

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24
Q

T or F: the receptors on the plasma membrane of eggs are species specific

A

True.

They are species specific and provide a prezygotic barrier

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25
Q

What leads to the fusion of sperm and egg plasma membrane?

A

Contact between the acrosomal process of the sperm and the egg plasma membrane

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26
Q

What happens when the sperm nucleus enters the egg cytoplasm?

A

A sodium ion channel opens in the egg’s plasma membrane –> Na+ ions diffuse in causing a change in the electric potential (depolarization)

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27
Q

How quickly does depolarization occur after a sperm binds to an egg?

A

1-3 seconds after

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28
Q

What is the function of depolarization?

A

It is the fast block to polyspermy

ie. makes it harder for more sperm to enter the egg

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29
Q

How long does depolarization last?

A

About a minute

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30
Q

What other reaction does the fusion of egg and sperm trigger?

A

Cortical reaction (slow block)

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31
Q

Define polyspermy

A

The fertilization of one egg by more than one male gamete

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32
Q

What is the result of polyspermy

A

The egg will die

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33
Q

Is the cortical reaction the slow or fast block to polyspermy?

A

SLOW

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34
Q

What structures create the cortical reaction? How do they trigger the reaction?

A

Vesicles under the plasma membrane of the egg called CORTICAL GRANULES that fuse with the plasma membrane within seconds of the sperm binding to the egg

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35
Q

How are cortical granules triggered?

A

By signal transduction

The binding of the sperm head causes the SMOOTH ER to release Ca2+ into the cytosol to trigger the fusion of the cortical granules with the plasma membrane

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36
Q

Once the cortical granules have fused to the plasma membrane what happens?

A

The contents of the cortical granules are released into the space between the plasma membrane and the Vitelline layer

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37
Q

What is the Vitelline layer?

A

the structure formed between the extracellular matrix of the egg

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38
Q

What occurs after the contents of the cortical granules have been released between the plasma membrane and the Vitelline layer?

A
  1. The Vitelline layer is lifted away from the egg by enzymes that break the bonds between the V layer and the plasma membrane and carbohydrates that draw water into the space by osmosis
  2. enzymes from the cortical granules harden the V layer into a protective fertilization envelope
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39
Q

What purpose do the enzymes from cortical granules serve after separating the Vitelline layer?

A

They harden the Vitelline layer into a protective fertilization envelope = creating the slow block

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40
Q

What activates the egg?

A

A rise in Ca2+ levels causes marked increase in the rate of cellular respiration and protein synthesis which requires only the proteins and mRNAs already present in the egg cytoplasm

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41
Q

How long after the sperm nucleus enters the egg will nuclei fusion occur in sea urchins?

A

~20 minutes

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42
Q

What occurs right after the fusion of the sperm and egg nuclei?

A

Mitosis begins and the first cell division marks the end of fertilization

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43
Q

T or F: fertilization in mammals and other terrestrial animals, like sea urchins, is external

A

FALSE.

It is internal in mammals

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44
Q

What are the functions of secretions in the female mammalian reproductive tract?

A

1 provide moist environment

2. change sperm motility and structure to enable sperm to fertilize egg

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45
Q

What structure must sperm cells travel through in mammals?

A

Follicle cells

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46
Q

What is the structure on the ECM of mammal eggs called that have receptors for sperm?

A

Zona pellucida

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47
Q

When sperm bind to the receptors on the zona pellucida, what occurs?

A

It induces the acrosomal reaction and passage through the ECM

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48
Q

What is a major difference between the blocks to polyspermy in mammals vs sea urchins?

A

Sea urchins use both the fast and slow block

Mammals only use the slow block

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49
Q

What is a major difference between the penetration of sperm into the egg of mammals vs. sea urchins?

A

Sea urchins: the acrosomal process extends from the sperm and releases the nucleus into the egg

Mammals: the enter sperm enters the egg

50
Q

What is a major difference between the timeline of nuclei fusion in mammals vs sea urchins?

A

Much slower in mammals, the nuclei don’t truly fuse until first mitosis = ~12-36 hours after sperm binding

~90 mins in urchins

51
Q

Define cleavage

A

A succession of rapid cell divisions without growth that occurs after fertilization

52
Q

Which cell division stages occur during cleavage?

A

S phase of interphase and mitosis

53
Q

What does cleavage produce?

A

Blastomeres

54
Q

Define blastomeres

A

The many small cells produced by cleavage

55
Q

What are the two groups of stomias?

A
  1. Protostome

2. Deuterostome

56
Q

Define blastula

A

A hollow ball of cells produced by cleavage with a fluid-filled cavity (blactocoel)

57
Q

Define blastocoel

A

A fluid-filled cavity within a blastula

58
Q

T or F: in sea urchins, blastomeres are a variety of sizes

A

FALSE. in sea urchins, blastomeres are ALL THE SAME SIZE

59
Q

T or F: in frogs and other animals, blastomeres are all the same size - why/why not?

A

FALSE

uneven distribution of yolk leads to differently sized blastomeres

60
Q

What is yolk?

A

stored nutrients

61
Q

What are the two poles of an egg?

A

Vegetal pole

Animal pole

62
Q

What is the vegetal pole?

A

The pole/end of the egg that has a higher concentration of yolk and therefore larger blastomeres

63
Q

What is the animal pole?

A

the pole/end of the egg opposite of the vegetal pole that usually has no yolk and smaller blastomeres

64
Q

What are protostomes?

A

Animals with mouths as the first opening in their digestive tracts

65
Q

Cleavage creates blastomeres in what kind of arrangement in protostomes?

A

Spiral arrangement

66
Q

What are deuterostomes?

A

Animals with mouths as the second opening in their digestive tracts

67
Q

Cleavage creates blastomeres in what kind of arrangement in deuterostomes?

A

The plane of cleavage is parallel or perpendicular to the polar axis

So cells are arranged directly above or below each other

68
Q

In frogs, what do the first 2 cleavages form?

A

4 equally sized blastomeres

69
Q

In frogs, how does the third cleavage occur (symmetrically or asymmetrically)? And what is the result?

A

Asymmetrical cleavage results in:

Animal pole having smaller blastomeres (no yolk)

Vegetal pole having larger blastomeres (yolk)

70
Q

When does cleavage end in animals?

A

When the ratio of material in the nucleus to cytoplasm is sufficiently large so that mRNA synthesis can occur

71
Q

What happens to the rate of cell division after cleavage ends?

A

It slows and the normal cell cycle is restored

72
Q

Define gastrulation

A

Occurs when a set of cells near the surface of a blastula moves to an interior location and forms a GASTRULA

73
Q

What is the function of gastrulation?

A

It rearranges the shape of the blastula into a three-layered embryo (usually) called a gastrula

74
Q

What is a gastrula?

A

The (usually) 3-layered embryo formed by gastrulation

75
Q

Animals with all three germ layers are called?

A

Triploblasts

76
Q

Animals with only two germ layers are called?

A

Diploblasts

77
Q

What kind of symmetry do animals with three germ layers have?

A

Bilateral

78
Q

What kind of symmetry do animals with 2 germ layers have?

A

Radial

79
Q

What is the blastopore?

A

the first hole that forms during gastrulation

80
Q

Where do cells first move into during gastrulation?

A

Cells move in at the blastopore at the open end of the archenteron

81
Q

Define archenteron

A

The cavity formed during gastrulation that develops into the digestive tract of the animal

82
Q

What will the blastopore become in protostomes?

A

the mouth

83
Q

What will the blastopore become in deuterostomes?

A

the anus

84
Q

Define germ layers

A

The embryonic tissue layers produced by gastrulation that will develop into specific structures in the adult animal

85
Q

What are the 3 germ layers?

A
  1. ectoderm (outer)
  2. mesoderm (middle)
  3. endoderm (inner)
86
Q

What 8 structures will the ectoderm develop into?

A
  1. epidermis of the skin and its derivatives (ex. sweat glands, hair follicles)
  2. nervous system
  3. sensory system
  4. pituitary gland
  5. adrenal medulla
  6. jaws
  7. teeth
  8. germ cells
87
Q

What 8 structures will the mesoderm (if present) develop into?

A

1 skeletal system

2 muscular system

3 circulatory system

4 lymphatic system

  1. excretory system

6 reproductive system (except germ cells)

7 dermis of skin

8 adrenal cortex

88
Q

What 5 structures will the endoderm develop into?

A
  1. epithelial lining of digestive tract and associated organs (liver, pancreas)
  2. epithelial lining of respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts and ducts
  3. thymus gland
  4. thyroid gland
  5. parathyroid gland
89
Q

T or F: all vertebrate embryos require an aqueous environment for development?

A

True

90
Q

What adaptation did reptiles and mammals develop to allow their offspring to survive on land?

A

embryo development on land in its own small aqueous environment (ex. amniotic eggs)

91
Q

T or F: mammal and reptile embryos are surrounded by a fluid in a sac that protects the embryo from desiccation

A

TRUE

92
Q

Define monotremes

A

Egg laying mammals

93
Q

What adaptation did reptiles and monotremes develop to slow dehydration of embryos on land?

A

Shelled eggs

94
Q

What adaptation did marsupials develop to slow dehydration of embryos on land?

A

Embryos develop in mother’s body but complete development in a pouch

95
Q

What adaptation did eutherians develop to slow dehydration of embryos on land?

A

Embryos develop in utero and are nourished by a placenta

96
Q

Define amniotic egg

A

Egg that contains 4 specialized extraembryonic membranes

97
Q

Which type of animals lay amniotic eggs?

A

reptiles (including birds)

mammals

98
Q

What are the 4 extraembryonic membranes of amniotic eggs?

A
  1. amnion
  2. allantois
  3. chorion
  4. yolk sac
99
Q

Describe the amnion membrane

A

fluid filled cavity that bathes, protects, and cushions the embryo against mechanical shock

100
Q

Describe the allantois membrane

A

disposal sac for some liquid metabolic wastes and a respiratory organ

101
Q

Describe the chorion membrane

A

Allows gas exchange to occur

102
Q

Describe the yolk sac membrane

A

Contains stored nutrients (yolk) which are transported to the embryo by blood

103
Q

Do mammals have the four extraembryonic membranes? why/why not?

A

No because the placenta and umbilical cord can carry out all the functions

104
Q

What 3 purposes do the placenta and umbilical cords serve in mammals?

A

Transport nutrients to the embryo

exchange gases

dispose of nitrogenous wastes

105
Q

What are the 2 stages of embryo development in mammals and approx when do they occur in humans?

A
  1. embryo: first 7 weeks in humans

2. fetus: 8 weeks until birth

106
Q

Define fetus

A

A developing mammal in utero with all the major structures of an adult

forms about 8 weeks after conception

107
Q

Define neurulation

A

the first steps in forming the brain and spinal cord in vertebrates

108
Q

Define notochord

A

the rod that extends along the dorsal side of the embryo

109
Q

What will replace the notochord?

A

the vertebrae

110
Q

Describe spina bifida and how it occurs/what the results are

A

If portions of the neural tube fail to develop or close properly in humans

Causes nerve damage due to the opening in the spinal column and can cause paralysis but surgery can repair the opening

111
Q

How does anencephaly occur? What are the consequences?

A

if an error occurs in the anterior neural tube, the embryo will not develop a cerebrum

It is fatal

112
Q

Define morphogenesis

A

The physical processes that given an organism its shape

It involves the movement of cells in animals by changing the shape of the cytoskeleton

113
Q

Does morphogenesis occur in plants? why/why not?

A

No because they have cell walls that prevent this from happening

114
Q

What can occur after gastrulation?

A

Either continuous or discontinuous development, depending on the animal type

115
Q

Define continuous development and give an example of an animal that does this

A

Animals develop directly from gastrulae into adults

ex. humans

116
Q

Define discontinuous development and give an example of an animal that does this

A

Different stages of development have different body forms

Most animals have at least one larval stage

ex. frogs

117
Q

Define larva

A

A free-living, sexually immature form of an animal that is usually different in form, nutrition, and habitat than the adult

118
Q

What are 2 functions of larvae?

A

Help with dispersal of the population

Enable animals to exploit niches different from the adults and therefore reduce interspecies competition

119
Q

Define metamorphosis

A

A developmental transformation that turns the animal into a juvenile which represents the adult but is sexually immature

ex. larvae – metamorphosis –> adult

120
Q

What are the 3 process used to change a zygote into the organism it will become?

A

cell division

cell differentiation

morphogenesis

121
Q

How come genes are expressed differentially?

A

Because almost all cells have the same genome

122
Q

What are the 2 major sources of direction for the cells/developmental mechanisms?

A

cytoplasmic determinants

induction

BIO 1210 (16 decks)

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