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Human Body > Physiology (Nuerohistology) > Flashcards

Physiology (Nuerohistology) Flashcards

1
Q

Evolution of Human Brain

A

Brain has evoloved over millions of years

Rat brain has the same anotomical organizaion as humas - has the same basic structurs for functionb

Rat (Smallest) vs. Monkey (bigger - has more cells) vs. Human (biggest - 4X bigger than primates)
- Primates have aquired volume in CNS
- Human brain is well packed (compression of volume)

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2
Q

Cells found in CNS

A

CNS = contains nuerons + Glial cells
- Nuerons are associated with nueronal glial cells critical for CNS function)

Nueroglial cells + Blood vessles coest with nuerons - imprortant for maintaining the function of the brain

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3
Q

Features of neurons

A

Nuerons have many featires –> central to function of the brain

Have many subtypes of nuerons (different shapes and sizes depending on where they are located)
- Example - Cerebelum cortext cells are pyrimidal

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4
Q

Synapse

A

Basic communication methid for nuerons

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5
Q

Parts of neuron

A
  1. Cell body - doesn’t facilitate communcation - have dendrites + Axons
  2. Dendrites - improtant for synapse (connected to synapses) = faciliatate nueronal function
  3. Axon - Directs communicaion with other sturctures in CNS or outside the CNS
    • Can be coated in mylin sheet or unmylinated
    • Facilitates communcation with terminal ends + densdirtes
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6
Q

Neuron

A

The basic cell unite of the brain - facilitates the function of the CNS
- Neurons are organized in layers that form the cerebral cortext (grey matter)
- Other cells coexist with nuerons to maintain the function of the brain

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7
Q

Past throughts on glial cells vs. nuerons

A

Passed reserach only focused on nuerons but now reserach is begining to focus on nueronal glial cells

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8
Q

Function of nueronal glial cells

A

Nuerons need nueronal glial cells to function

Nueronal glial cells:
1. Oligiodentricyes - make myline
2. Astricytes - Asscoiated with nuerons or associated with blood vessles

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9
Q

Mylin

A

Facilitates conduction of electrical imuplues
- heavily mylinated = faster conduction

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10
Q

Blood vessels in brain

A

Blood vessels = important to birng blood into the brain - nueronal glial cells (Astrocytes) can assocuated with the Blood vessles to help bring blood in

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11
Q

Development of CNS during emryogenesis

A

Structires of teh CNS orginated in the nueronal plate –> Nueronal plate developes into the nueronal grrove –> Neuroinal groove developes into the nueronal tube –> Nueornla tube becomes the CNS

Nueoronal plate = derived from ectoderm –> Nuerona + nueornal glial cells originate in the nueronal tube

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12
Q

Division of nueronal tube

A

Nueronal tube is divided to different compartments

  1. Anterior (Forebrain) = gives rise to brain Gives rise to the brain hemispheres)
  2. Middle protion = gives rise to midbrain
  3. Lower down form middle pertion = Gives rise to hindbrain
  4. Posterior (bottom) = gives rise to the spinal cord

Sagital view - can see the forebrain in anterior –> the midbrain –> Spinal cord

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13
Q

Adult brain vs. brain during embryogensis

A

The adult brain mimics what we see in embryogensis

See forebrain becoming the brain
See middle protion becoming the midbrain
See posterior protino becoming the Spinal cord

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14
Q

Function of the brain + Spinal cord

A

All physiologycal function for motor + sensory + emotion

Spinal cord - highway for motor + sensory (distributes and captires information)

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15
Q

Frontal lobe function (overall)

A

Contains:
1. Pirmary motor cortext - volentary mucle movmet
2. premotor cortext/S.M.C - Planning and corrdination of movement (motor organization)
3. Frontal eye feld - volentary rapid eye movement
4. Prefrontal cortext - executive functions + behavior + personality

Frontal = largets portion of the brain

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16
Q

Frontal lobe - Motor cortext

A

Frontal lobe = contains the motor cortext = generates movment
- Cortical regions that generate movement = well organized (Ex. posterior region of motor = representative of all of the areas of the body - dfferent parts of the cortext control movment in differenr parts of the body

To get movment - cereral cortext needs to generate signal –> inputs signal to the primary motor cortext + pre-motor cortext

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17
Q

Occipital Love

A

Function - vision

part of the cerbal cortext taht processes vision infrmation form the retinal

Retina – Optic nerve –> Occipital lobe

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18
Q

Frontal Lobe + Executive function

A

Frontal lobe = important for organization + executive function

Example - when you wake up and getting ready for the day - need to use executive function –> EF is generated in the prefrontal cortext
- IF lose frontal lobe = lose executive function

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19
Q

Past treatment of mental disorder

A

20th century - treated mental disorders by taking out the frontal lobe –> pateints become calmer + destroy the ability to generate behavior and Executive function

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20
Q

Football players injury

A

Football players = damage frontal lobe = get behavioral probelms

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21
Q

Grey Matter Vs. White matter

A

Grey matter = organized in the cerbral cortext + in deep grey nuclei in the basal ganglia

Grey matter = has high density of nuerons + glial cells (“computers”)

White matter = High denisty of axons/mylination (“wiring”)

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22
Q

Different views of the brain

A

Left - MRI (high resolution imaging of the brain)
- See grey vs. white matter + different structres in the brain

Top Right - Coronal section –> See grey matter + Sulci + white matter + bridge between the right and left brain + see basal ganglion
- Bridge = Corpus colosum - axons that facilitate communication

Bottom Right - Lateral view (left = frontal lobe)

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23
Q

Spinal cord

A

Goes through the spine (spine = bony compartment that contains the spinal cord)

Spinal cord = highway
- Sends motor information form th ebrain to the limbs and takes sensory information from the organs to the brain

Trauma to neck/soine = disrupt communication = paralyzed

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24
Q

Two Paths in Spinal cord

A
  1. Acending (Sensory function) - Carry sensory ifnormation from organs to go to the brain
  2. Descending (Motor function) - uses the corteco spinal tract (used for motor)
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25
Q

Decending information in brain

A

Used for motot functions

To move -
1. Need to know ehere hand in in space (uses snesory nerves)
2. Need the forntal primary cortext to move hand (signal goe sto the primary motor cortext = move muscles) BUT you need to move sevral muscle at once
3. Signal goes ot the primary motor in white matter axons
4. Signal goes to the mibrain
5. Signal goes to the spinal cord
6. Spinal cord is connected to the spinal tract —> spinal tract packages the acins coordinating the motor information

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26
Q

What happens in the brainstem

A

In the brain stem - have pydrimidal deccustation
- IN brainstem a large percent of fibers that control right hand come from the left side of the brain (95% of fibers to move right hand come from left hemisphere)

BECAUSE in the brainste, the nerves cross the midline (have pyrimidal deccustation) –> control the right hand iwth left brain

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27
Q

Symptoms if have isse with decending information

A

See symptoms when examining motor control:

  1. Weakness (Ex. if have stroke and can’t move arm)
  2. Paralysis
  3. Stiffening (Spasticity) - diffculty moving limbs
  4. Cramps - Stress cortecospinal tract = get cramps
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28
Q

Bringing sensory information to the brain

A

Sensory = comes from the spinal cord –> spinal cord carriers information to the brain –> information goes to the thalumus –> thalumus gives the information to other area sin the brain
- Example - thalumus gives the information to the frontal lobe –> facilitates movement
- Example 2 - If hand touches something hot –> sensory infor goes to brain to withdraw the hand (motor cortext generates information to withdraw)
- Thalumus = deep white matter structure

Overall - Spinal cord –> gives sensor information to the motor cortext = genertaes movement

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29
Q

Sensory function issues

A

Symptoms:
1. Pain
2. Lack of snesation
3. Abnormal sensation
4. Lack of balance - if have numbness in feet or damage to the spinal cord = get issues with balance

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30
Q

What facilitates movment

A

Motor + sesory both facilitate movmemt

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31
Q

Nuerons in cerebral cortext

A

Nuerons in cerebral cortext to send and receive electrical signals = organized in layers
- Axons = in the white matter

32
Q

Role of nueron

A

Generate electrical activity –> generates the electrocal activity using Nuerotransmitters
- Nuerons generate nuerotranmitters = generate eletrical function
- Nueron = uses elctrochemical acitivity

Have nuerotransmitters in cell body –> nuerotransmitters go to the axon –> nuerotrasnmittters go to the terminal –> complete function

33
Q

Which cell in most important in the brain

A

NO one cell is most important in the brain (ALL of the cells are needed)

34
Q

Center of the CNS

A

Center of the CNS = nuerons (people thought they were the most important but now we know that nuerons that do not have any other surroudning support cells cannot work)

35
Q

What does nuerons need

A

Nuerons need:
1. Astrocytes
2. Glial cells
3. Mylinin (need ologiodentrites)
4. Atroglial cells - in close contact with nuerons + axons + blood vessels
5. Blood Bran Barrier - made up of endolthelium + perivascular macrophages
- BBB - has Blood vessles that connect blood with CNS

NO one cell is most important - if lose one element = get dysfunction

36
Q

Where do cells in CNS come form

A

ALL cell come from the ectoderm EXCEPT microglual and macriphages
- Microglial cells + macrophages = come from mesoderms

37
Q

Microglial + macrophages

A

Represenatves of the immune system in the CNS

38
Q

Is the CNS immune privaleged

A

The CNS is NOT immune privaleged

Innate immunity = uses microglial + astroglia
BBB = important for immunity in the brain (cytokines and kemokines can get through)
- Modulates immune repinse using lymphocyte/monocyte traficking
Adaptive immunity = Specific T cell and antibody responses

39
Q

What does the Nueron produce

A

Nueorn is an electrical and chemical factory

Cell body - produces nuerotransmitters –> Nurotransmitters go to the axon –> creates neurostimulation –> cauases a fucntion

40
Q

Types of nuerotransmitters

A
  1. Excitatory nuerotransmitters (Ex. Glu) - Stimulates
  2. Inhibitory (GABA) - blocks function

CNS = based on electrical function –> have positive and negative signals

41
Q

Brain development during emrbgenes + first year

A

During embryogensis first year get critical elements of organization:

  1. Nuronal + cortical organzation (get nuerons + glial cells)
  2. Synatic + Dendritic modeling (get the start of synapses/dendrtic organzation)
    - Synaptic/dendritic organiaion = basis of nueronal function that will be the main function in the adult brain
  3. Cortical networks develope
  4. Brain growth
42
Q

Two things that occur during emrbyogensis + first year

A

Get orgnzation of nuerons + stimulation

IF during the babies first year there is not enough stimulation then the brain will have less organzation = need to stimulate babies
- Babies have deficit in synaptic acivity if there is no stimulation

Hypothesis for some nuerdevelopmental disorders = during utero and after = don’t get stimulation = don’t get factors that facillitate connectivity = get behavior abnomalities

43
Q

Factors for organization of CNS

A
  1. Astrocytes - affects the movment and location of axons in teh cerbral cortext
    • Cytokine + kemokines + immune cells facilitate function of Astrocytes
  2. Glial Cells - communcation with glial cells = improtant for organzation of CNS (uses the immune system for communication)
  3. Immune system
    • If have disruption in utero = damage organzation (Ex. if mom gets virus while pregnant –> damage CNS organzation of baby)
44
Q

Phase 1 of nueronal organzation

A

Phase 1 of nueronal organization = during utero + the first 2 years of life

45
Q

What happens after age 2

A

After age 2 = Have phase 2 - Brain adaptation
- Nuerons + glial cells = generate nueronal connectivity

1st phase = Make stringer synaptic connections
2ns phase (Adaptation) = lower strength of sunaptic connections
- These connections are more suceotible to chnage
- Ex. learning in school

Example - if you stop learning math = you will lose the synaptic connections vs. primary language learned in the first two years won;y be lost because he synapses are stringer

46
Q

First vs. second phase example

A

Languges - If learn a languge in the first two years of life –> languges will be impretented vs. If learn langauge in second phase (Adaptation) = you willl not have the same quality of imprinting as during the first phase

Reason why it is better to learn a language earler because later you will form wekaer synpases that cna be lost more easily

47
Q

Synaptic plasticty Strength

A

Synaptic plasticty = string if aquired during development but not as strong during adaptation

48
Q

Developmental vs. adaptive synaptic plasticity

A

Synaptic formation is lower in Adaptive synaptic plasticity = have lower quality of synapses after embryogensis

Adulthod = not as easy to maintain synapses = need to mainatin stimulation to maintain the synapses

49
Q

Main modulaters of immune related pathological mechanisms

A
  1. Nuerovascular unit - uses glial cells (Astorcytes)
  2. Blood Brain Barrier
50
Q

Astrocytes + Immune function

A

Astrocyes - important for CNS function)
1. Interact with the blood vesels = facilatte exchange with blood vessels + CNS
2. Have glial process/astrocytes tragets

51
Q

Blood Brain Barrier

A

Modulatory Unit in the CNS
- Blood vessels = important for BBB

Have Edeothelal cells + macrophages - Opens the door to immune cells + cytokines + kemokines

52
Q

Astrocyte Cell function

A

Interacts with Microglial –> important for nueral-neruogial interactions
- Form a network

Interacts with nuerons (Astroglial - nueronal interactions)

Axon guidence

Nuerotransmission

Blood brain barrier homoestasis

53
Q

Microglial cells

A

Elements of the immune system
- Intercat with Blood vessles + Astrocytes + neurons

54
Q

Diveristy of astroglial cells are important for

A
  1. Synaptogensis
  2. Synaptic plasticity
  3. Oligiodentricyte function
  4. BBB function
  5. Energetic support in CNS
55
Q

What cells are used at the synapse

A

Synaspe = uses glial cells –> uses astrocytes
- Astrocytes = provide envrinment for synaptic structure

56
Q

What is needed for electrochemical communication

A

In order to have electrochemical communication in pre and post synapse = need astrocytes to facilitate + ensure homoestatis of Nuertotrasnmitters

Glial cells = faciliatte trafficing of Nuerotransmitters + facilitates exchnage of turotrasnmitters + uptake of Nuerotransiteers + trageting of synapse to be deleted

57
Q

Removing synapse

A

Form synapses –> if synapses stop doing function then you can remove synapses - Called “Synaptic modeling”
- Example - if you don’t use a languge = remove the synapses associated with the lanaguge

Process = uses mcroglial cells –> facilitate tagging of synapses to remove synaptic connectivity

How - Synapse is tagged by astorcytes with Clq fcators –> micorglia will will recognize these factors and phagocytoses and take away the synapse

58
Q

Movment of NT at Synapse

A

Presynaptic nueron facilitates commincation by producing nuerotransmitters –> terminal of nueron puts the Nuerotrasnmitter into the cleft –> Nuerotrasnmitters go to the recetors on the post synaptic nueron
- Ex. NMDAR - glutamine receptor on post synaptic nueron

59
Q

Perivascular astrocytes

A

Critical for Blood vessel function

lack expression of MHC Class II

Increase of perivascular processes

Express cytokiines + kemokines

Important in Glutamate metabolsim

60
Q

Glial cells + Scarr tissue

A

Before reserachers though that glial cells facilitate scrar tissue formation

NOW - know that astroglil cells don’t make glial scar INSTEAD found that the glial cells are important in injury
- Found that glial cells make a glial factor and growth facors that facilitate in the recovery of axons = glial cells facilitate in regernatino NOT making fibrotic scar
- Overall - Astrocytes + glial scar contrubute to facilitation of axonal reconvery

NOW can use this information t get astroglial cells to comeplte CNS regernation in disease/injury

61
Q

Santiago ramon y cajal

A

Studied histology of the CNS (pioneer in feild) – used photography and then the black and white pictre would pain the color by hand to show anatomy/histology
- Pioneer in the history of the immune system

His fellow (Rio-Hortega) - focus on drawing the other cells around the nuerons (drew the microglial cells)
- At the time the resercahers had a neurocentric philsophy (neuron is themain cell for excutive function) BUT the fellow discovered/reseracheed and found that many neurons were attached to microglal
- Had cajal calling the nueron the frist elements and Kortesy called microglia the 3rd elemements –> cajal got mad at the fellow –> fired the fellow

62
Q

Microglia rediscovery

A

Microglia were rediscivered in the 21st century - found to be a critical element of the CNS

Old view - microglia = bad/inflamatory
New view = Microglia are importnat for metabolism + synaptic formation + trasnptopomic function + immunity

63
Q

Where do micorglia orginate

A

Microglia = come form the mesoderm –> act as an imune cell in CS

Microglia = main mediators if innate immunity in CNS
- New reserach = maintaining microglia to regenerate nueron functions

64
Q

Functions of microglia

A
  1. Survalence - sense injury to CNS
  2. Phagocytosis - synaptic plasticity = need microglia to remove the synapse when they are not needed
  3. Release factors for nueron communication
  4. Nuerogensis
  5. Synaptic remoeling
  6. Migration
  7. Inflamation
  8. BBB

Microglial = first to react at injury then the macrophages come to clean the area of nueronal injury
- Microglia = go to all structures in the CNS

65
Q

Microglia development

A

Microglia = come from mesoderm

Duering embryogensis have wave of stem cells from the yolk sac –> stem cells populate the brain + the liver
- Stem cells in the brain –> gives rise to Microglial cells
- Stem cells in the liver –> give rise to Kupler cells

THEN have 2nd wave post emryogensis –> have hematohensis –> produce monocytes –> monocytes go to organs (macrophages go to difefrent organs)
- Monocytes traffic to the brain = become macorphages (macrophags mimic microglia cells)

66
Q

Where do microglia go

A

Microglia go to all structures in the CNS

Macrophages - go to memgies + chorioid plexus + perivascular

67
Q

Microglia interactions

A

Microglia is a dynamic cell in nuerical microglia interactiions
- Microglia = intercat with axons or blood vessels

68
Q

What does Microglia drive

A

Microglia is the most important glial driver of synaptic plasticity in the CNS
- Microglia inertact with dendrites for phagocytosis of dendritic structure
- Microglia = recognize Cl1 = complete phagocytosis –> leads to synaptic homeostasis

69
Q

Microglia astrocyte intercations

A

Microglia and astrocytes intercat for synaotic hooeotsasis –> needed for syanptic plasticity

Occurs in developing brain (have synapse elimniation) + less in mature brain (have stable connections)
- In neurodegentive disease = have excessive synatptic eliminarion

70
Q

Perivascular macophages

A

Function as antigen presenting cells

Have receptirs for cytokines + kemokines

Produces cytokines + kemokines

Connected with Blood vessles in CNS

Derived from monocytes

Co-receptors for HIV (site of infection for HIV) –> facilitate infections

71
Q

Oligiodendricytes

A

Oligiodendroglia = main cell in the CNS that produe myline
- Oligiodendricytes = critical for mylination

Heavily mylinated = faster conduction

72
Q

CSF absorbption + production

A

Chorioid plecus = facilitates filtration of plasma
- Foun in ventrical system in CNS
- Facilitate the production of CSF

73
Q

CSF

A

Surrounds the brain + spinal cord
- Facilitates metabolism function in brain

3000 white blood cells per mL of CSF
Have complete exchange of CSF 3 times/dat
Have constant influx/eflux of lymphocytes in and out of the CNS

74
Q

Lymphatic system in CNS

A

Before - people thought that teh CNS did not have a lymphatic drainage system - means brain is not communicating with the lymphatic syste

Now - we know that the brain has lymphatic dranage –> means that metabolic products of the CNS can be drainedto the lympatic system using chanels going around the venous system in the brain
- Drainage = facilitates connection of barin with the lymphatic system

75
Q

Brain + lymphatic system

A

Brain comminicates withe the lymphatic system –> tells immune cells that there is metabolic injury
- System = affects alzheimers disease

76
Q
A

Human Body (31 decks)

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