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G2 2017-2018 > Physiology - Endocrinology of the Thyroid Gland > Flashcards

Physiology - Endocrinology of the Thyroid Gland Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 2 iodotyrosils?

A

MIT and DIT

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2
Q

What is MIT?

A

Monoiodotyrosine

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3
Q

What is DIT?

A

Diiodotyrosine

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4
Q

Where is the 1st iodide added onto to Tyr?

A

3’

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5
Q

Where is the 2nd iodide added onto to Tyr?

A

5’

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6
Q

What is T3?

A

MIT + DIT

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7
Q

What is T4?

A

DIT + DIT

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8
Q

How many iodides does T3 have on the outer ring?

A

1

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9
Q

How many iodides does T4 have on the outer ring?

A

2

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10
Q

Which thyroid hormone is the active one in the body?

A

T3

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11
Q

What are T3 and T4 bound to? Which one is more bound that the other?

A

Thyroid hormone binding globulin (TBG) (~70% of it)Higher percentage of T4 is bound (99.97% T4 bound vs. 99.7% T3 bound)

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12
Q

What is reverse T3? When is it created? What is it a sign of?

A

It has 2 iodides on the outer ring and 1 on the inner ringCreated by improper conversion of T4 to T3 in the peripheryUsually a sign of illness, carb starvation, and in the fetus

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13
Q

Where are the thyroid hormones produced? Describe their structure.

A

In the follicles of the thyroid gland in the neck made of single layer of follicular cells surrounding the follicular space containing colloid (made by follicular cells)

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14
Q

What are the 3 roles of the follicular cells of the thyroid gland?

A
  1. Bring in iodide2. Transport iodide to the follicular space3. Makes enzymes for thyroid hormone production
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15
Q

What are the 3 effects of TSH on the thyroid gland?

A
  1. Stimulation of hormone production/secretion2. Increase in size3. Stimulation of iodide uptake
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16
Q

What type of receptor is the TSH receptor on the thyroid gland? How many membrane spanning regions does it have?

A

G-protein coupled receptor7 membrane-spanning regions

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17
Q

Where is the TSH receptor located in the thyroid gland?

A

Basolateral surface of the follicular cells

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18
Q

How does the TSH receptor in the thyroid gland work to increase thyroid hormone production?

A

Activates adenylyl cyclase which increases cAMP in the cells, which accelerates ALL hormone producing processes

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19
Q

What is the major inhibitor of thyroid hormone production?

A

Propylthiouracil (PTU)

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20
Q

What is the precursor of thyroid hormones?

A

Tyr

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21
Q

How is iodide pumped into the follicular cells of the thyroid gland?

A

I-/Na+ symporter on basolateral membrane through secondary active transport as the Na+/K+ ATPase provides the concentration gradient of sodium

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22
Q

What are the 4 competitive inhibitors of the I-/Na+ symporter of the follicular cells of the thyroid gland? What do these inhibit exactly? How?

A
  1. Thyocyanate: SCN-2. Perchlorate: ClO4-3. Perrhenate: ReO4-4. Pertechnetate: TcO4-Inhibit the UPTAKE of iodine, not the pump itself because they are transported instead (indirect inhibition)
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23
Q

How does iodide leave the follicular cells of the thyroid gland?

A

Simple diffusion

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24
Q

What is the ratio of iodide inside a thyroid follicular cell to that of serum in humans?

A

25:1

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25
Q

How do we treat thyroid tumors? What can this damage as collateral?

A

Radioactive iodide therapy to ablate the tumorSalivary glands can be damaged also

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26
Q

What happens to the iodide once it has entered the follicular cells of the thyroid gland? How? To what end? What does this require?

A

It is transported through the apical membrane in the follicular space (on the luminal surface) through which it travels due to the electrochemical gradient (the follicular space has similar ectrochemical characteristics to the exterior of the cell) to be oxidized by thyroperoxidase (TPO), which requires NADPH

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27
Q

How is TPO activated to oxidize iodide once it has entered the follicular cells of the thyroid gland? What inhibits it?

A

Stimulated/Activated by TSHInhibited by PTU

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28
Q

Is the thyroid the only place where iodide can be oxidized?

A

Yes

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29
Q

How is thyroid storm treated during pregnancy? Why?

A

With PTU only during the first trimester (because it also causes liver damage) and then methimazole

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30
Q

In what food is thyocyanate found in?

A

Cassava (from Zaire, central Africa)

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31
Q

What does eating cassava cause in people from Zaire?

A

They already are not ingesting enough iodide and by eating cassava they cannot pump iodide into the follicular cells of the thyroid gland, so this causes:1. Low iodide2. High amounts of TSH: thyroid gland growth = goiter

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32
Q

What is cretinism due to? Symptoms?

A

Insufficient amounts of thyroid hormones during development causing short stature and stunted brain development

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33
Q

How are thyroid hormones produced at the laminal surface?

A

TPO adds iodide to the tyrosine portions of thyroglobulin (TGB) to form MIT and DIT and then TPO fuses them to form T3 or T4

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34
Q

What protein can inhibit the fusion of MIT and DIT?

A

PTU

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35
Q

What causes the release of thyroglobulin complex from the colloid surrounding the follicular cells of the thyroid gland? How?

A

TSHInvagination of follicular membrane into vesicles

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36
Q

What happens to the thyroglubulin complex containing vesicles inside the follicular cells of the thyroid gland?

A

They fuse with lysosomes to give rise to secondary lysosomes: phagolysosomes where the complex is completely hydrolyzed by proteases into AAs, DIT, MIT, T3/T4

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37
Q

What happens to the non-T3/T4 products in the lysosomes inside the follicular cells of the thyroid gland? Why?

A

Recycled because there is no tRNA to incorporate them into new proteins

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38
Q

What happens to the iodide in the lysosomes inside the follicular cells of the thyroid gland?

A

Has to go through the whole oxidation process all over again

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39
Q

What is the predominant form of the thyroid hormone produced in the thyroid gland?

A

T4: inactive

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40
Q

Which has more affinity for thyroid hormone receptors on target cells: T3 or T4? By how much?

A

T3x10

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41
Q

What happens to T4 once it binds to thyroid hormone receptors on target cells?

A

Converted to T3 by 5’ thyroxine deiodinase

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42
Q

Can T4 be converted to T3 in the plasma?

A

Yes, a small amount is

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43
Q

What 2 enzymes block the conversion of T4 to T3? How?

A
  1. Methimazole2. PTUInhibit the deiodinase
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44
Q

What feedback do thyroid hormones have on the hypo and pit? Do both T3 and T4 have these effects?

A

Hypo: -TRHPit: -TSHYUP

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45
Q

How will an increase in GH affect thyroid hormone production?

A

Inhibit it because IGF-1 will +SS, which inhibits TSH production by pit

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46
Q

What is newborn hypothyroidism caused by? How is it treated? Symptoms if not treated?

A

Inability to make thyroid hormones at birthTreatment: administer thyroid hormones to prevent cretinism and growth defects (downturned mouth and dead eyes) FOR THE REST OF THEIR LIVES

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47
Q

What is endemic goiter caused by? 3 symptoms?

A

Not enough iodide in diet1. Increased TRH2. Increased TSH3. Thyroid growth

48
Q

What is Grave’s disease caused by? More prevalent in what patients? Symptoms? Treatment? Side effects?

A

Autoimmune disease where antibodies (TSI: Thyroid Stimulating Igs) attack the TSH receptor of the thyroid gland stimulating it and causing high thyroid hormone production = hyperthyroidism and sometimes diffuse goiterMore common in women10% of patients also have Symptom: big eyes (proptosis), heat intolerance, tremor, weight loss, perspiration, diarrhea, oilier skinTreatment: thiourea drugs (methimazole, not PTU), surgery, and/or radioactive iodine (I131)Side effects: weight gain

49
Q

What is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis caused by? Symptoms?

A

Autoimmune disease where antibodies attack thyroglobulin and break down the thyroid gland = hypothyroidismSymptoms: cold intolerance, weight gain, cold clammy skin, slow reflexes and reactions, constipation

50
Q

What causes inhibition of thyroid hormone release in the blood?

A

Lithium

51
Q

What is the Wolff-Chiakoff effect? How long does it last? Why? What is it often used to manage/prevent (2 things)? In what form?

A

Short-term effect of excess levels of iodide exerting negative feedback on the production/release of thyroid hormones at the point of thyroglobulin release of T3/T4 (vesicle formation). Relieved after 48 hrs due to increased export of iodide.Solution of K+I- can be used to:1. Manage or prevent thyroid storm 2. Decrease size (therefore vasculature) of thyroid and amount of THs

52
Q

How does ouabain affect thyroid hormone production?

A

It inhibits the Na+/K+ ATP-ase, therefore inhibiting iodide transport into the follicular cells of the thyroid gland, thereby inhibiting TH production

53
Q

What is used for radiographic imaging of the thyroid?

A

Radioactive derivatives of the competitive inhibitors of the iodide pump

54
Q

What is the ratio of iodide inside a thyroid follicular cell to that of serum in animals that have been chronically stimulated with TSH?

A

500:1

55
Q

What is the ratio of iodide inside a thyroid follicular cell to that of serum in hypophysectomized animals?

A

5:1

56
Q

Other than through cAMP levels, how can the TSH receptor on the thyroid increase TH levels?

A

Phospholipase A activation

57
Q

What other 4 organs can take up iodide? +?

A
  1. Salivary glands2. Mammary glands3. Chorion4. Stomach
58
Q

Describe the composition of thyroperoxidase.

A

Heme containing and glycosylated

59
Q

What does TPO require to function? Where does it come from?

A

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 produced by NADPH-dependent enzyme resembling cytochrome C reductase

60
Q

What is the class of drugs that PTU is part of?

A

Thiourea drugs

61
Q

What is the organification of tyrosine?

A

The ionidation of Tyr

62
Q

What is the full name of T3?

A

Triiodothyronine

63
Q

What is the full name of T4? 2 names

A

Tetraiodothyronine = thyroxine

64
Q

What are the 4 thiourea class antithyroid drugs?

A
  1. Thiourea2. Thiouracil3. Propyllthiouracil (PTU)4. Methimazole
65
Q

Does the coupling of MIT and DIT/DIT and DIT cleave the peptide bond? What does it leave behind?

A

NOPELeaves dehydroalanine behind

66
Q

Describe the structure of thyroglobulin.

A

Homodimer with 8-10% carbs, 0.2-1% iodide, 5 MIT, 4.5 DIT, 2.5 T4, 0.7 T3 and close to 5500 AAs

67
Q

How many Tyr does thyroglobulin contain?

A

134

68
Q

How many ATPs are required to produce 1 T3 or T4?

A

~3,400

69
Q

How much TH supply does the extracellular colloid contain?

A

Months supply

70
Q

Once thyroglobulin is hydrolyzed, how are MIT and DIT deiodinated to be recycled? What does this require?

A

By deiodinase requiring NADPH

71
Q

What % of dietery iodide is absorbed?

A

30%

72
Q

What are the medium-term effects of excess iodide levels? Why? How long does it take cells to recover?

A

Increased organification leading to increased MIT and DIT but decreased T3/T4 possibly because of decreased T3/T4 content of TGBTakes cells 7-10 days to recover

73
Q

What are the long-term effects of excess iodide levels? Why?

A

Permanent iodide block and a goiter and hypothyroidism develop probably due to some underlying defect in thyroid

74
Q

What is the role of arachidonic acid in the effects of excess levels of iodide?

A

Might be involved in recovery mechanism after iodide inhibition

75
Q

What is the T3/T4 that is not bound to TBG bound to? 2 molecules? What %?

A
  1. Thyroxine-binding pre-albumin (TBPA): 10-15%2. Albumin: 15-20%
76
Q

What is the plasma half life of T3?

A

1.5 days

77
Q

What is the plasma half life of T4?

A

6.5 days

78
Q

Why is it important to measure free and total thyroid hormone levels?

A

Because many agents alter TBG levels (total hormone) without altering free hormone levels and those are the only ones that are biologically active ie hyper/hypothyroidism can only be determined by free hormone levels

79
Q

What organ synthesizes TBG? What stimulates its production? What inhibit its production?

A

Liver+ estrogen- glucocorticoids

80
Q

What 2 molecules compete with THs for TBG binding?

A
  1. Phenytoin2. Salicylates
81
Q

Where is the thyroid hormone receptor located?

A

Nuclear receptor on thyroid response elements (TRE) of the DNA

82
Q

How does the thyroid hormone receptor bind to DNA? 2 ways. Which form is the most active?

A

Either as a homodimer or as heterodimer with RXR (most active)

83
Q

What stimulates TRH release by hypo?

A

Low T3 levels

84
Q

What are the 2 genes that encore thyroid hormone receptors?

A

TRalpha and TRbeta

85
Q

What do TREs consist of?

A

Inverted (palindromic) or direct repeats of: AGGTCA

86
Q

Are direct repeats of TREs one after another?

A

NOPE, separated by 4 base pairs

87
Q

Where are TREs found in DNA?

A
  1. Growth hormone gene 2. Cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATP gene (SERCA2)3. Isoform of myosin genes 4. Beta-adrenergic receptors of cardiac muscle and arterioles(2 and 3 increase heart rate)
88
Q

What mediates transcriptional repression of TREs? How?

A

nTREs: TR binds to them to repress transcription

89
Q

Where are nTREs found?

A

TSH subunits genes

90
Q

What is the effect of TH on oxygen consumption? Why?

A

Increases O2 consumption by increasing number of Na+K+ ATP-ases

91
Q

What is the effect of TH on protein synthesis? What does this cause?

A

Increase in protein synthesis –> positive nitrogen balance = intake of nitrogen into the body is greater than the loss of nitrogen from the body, so there is an increase in the total body pool of protein

92
Q

What metamorphosis is TH necessary for?

A

Amphibian metamorphosis: tadpole to frog

93
Q

How does gene activation happen when TH binds to the TH receptor on DNA?

A

TH recruits coactivators to the receptor that interact with the initiation complex

94
Q

What is the most common form of hyperthyroidism?

A

Grave’s disease

95
Q

To what family does the TH receptor belong to?

A

Steroid/Thyroid/Retinoic acid superfamily of nuclear receptors

96
Q

What is proptosis due to in Grave’s disease? 3 aspects.

A
  1. TSIs are attacking receptors on fibroblasts in the eye causing them to proliferate leading to inflammation behind the eye.2. TSIs also cause the accumulation of mycopolysaccharides in the interstitial space leading to an increase in osmotic pressure in IS3. Muscle damage and inability to close eye lids and sometimes eye has to be enucleated because it is so dry.
97
Q

Does reverse T3 have a function?

A

No known one

98
Q

Which membrane is considered the outside membrane of the follicles of the thyroid?

A

The apical membrane toward the follicular space

99
Q

What are the 3 types of patients to whom we recommend PTU instead of methimazole?

A
  1. First trimester pregnant women2. Thyroid storm3. Allergic to methimazole
100
Q

What is a thyroid storm? What can it be caused by? What is the main risk? Treatment?

A

Huge amount of TH entering your system at once.Can be caused during neck surgery (may or may not involve thyroid), by surgeon causing a huge release by touching the colloid space that has months worth of hormonesRisk: ventricular fibrillation and heart attack. Very dangerous.Treatment: PTU, lithium, and methimazole

101
Q

What is a goitrogen?

A

Food containing TH production/release inhibiting agent

102
Q

What does the response of cell to T3 vs T4 depend on?

A

The amount of tyrosine deiodinase

103
Q

How long does it take for newborn hypothyroidism to be noticed? How come?

A

Few days because of T4 half life in newborn blood from mother

104
Q

Are autoimmune disorders more common in females or males? Why?

A

Females because of birth process where antibodies are produced by the mother

105
Q

What other condition is often seen alongside Grave’s disease? Why?

A

70% of patients also have Hashimoto’s thyroiditis because different kinds of antibodies are being produced: some will activate some will destroy

106
Q

Can iodide be used to treat hyperthyroidism? When?

A

Yes, in the short-term

107
Q

Why does hyperthyroidism cause weight loss and hyperphagia?

A

Because excess TH causes an increase in the basal metabolic rate causing an increased caloric intake which is then burned fast:1. Na+ is more permeable so the Na+/K+ ATPase channels are doing more work2. Gut motility is increased

108
Q

Why does hyperthyroidism cause heat intolerance? 2 reasons

A
  1. Excess TH increases the basal metabolic rate2. Excess TH causes an increase in uncoupling proteins: mitochondrial inner membrane proteins channels/transporters that are capable of dissipating the proton gradient and use that energy to generate heat
109
Q

What is the effect of VERY high TH levels? Eg?

A

Catabolic effect which increases blood glucose levels and breaks down macromoleculesEg: collagen and finger nails fall off

110
Q

What does a diffuse goieter mean?

A

Means the size increase is consistent all around the gland

111
Q

What is NADPH used for during TH synthesis? 2 things

A
  1. Oxidizing iodine2. MIT and DIT deiodination when recycled
112
Q

What does constitutive production of a hormone mean? Eg?

A

Production without negative feedback. Eg: endemic goitier

113
Q

What does a bounding pulse mean?

A

Noticeable/Pulsating

114
Q

What is the thyroid isthmus?

A

The tissue connecting the four poles across the trachea

115
Q

What does exophtalmos mean?

A

Bulging of the eyes = proptosis

116
Q

What is cold iodine?

A

Iodine ingested to inhibit TH

117
Q

Are THs anabolic or catabolic?

A

Both depending on amount:Normal amount: anabolic effect (eg: increase in beta adrenergic receptors)Excess: catabolic effect (eg: collagen breakdown)

G2 2017-2018 (45 decks)

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