People in Groups Flashcards
What is social facilitation?
How the effects of others can influence your performance due to increased effort
Who looked at social faciliation?
Triplett (1898)
What is the procedure of social facilitation?
A lab experiment to see fast children reeled in a fishing line
What were the findings of the social facilitation experiment?
Children did the task faster when in pairs
What did Allport (1920) say about social facilitation?
The effect is not limited to competition between individuals but the mere presence of others
Who found the drive theory?
Zajonc 1965
What is the drive theory?
The physical presence of others increases arousal that can have a debilitating or enhancing effect on performace due to the production of arousal
What does the presence of others, arousal, strengthened dominant response and an easy task lead to?
Social facilitation (increased performance
What does the presence of others, arousal, strengthened dominant response and an hard task lead to in drive theory?
Social inhibition (decreased performance)
What is evaluation apprehension?
The worry of being judged
Who looked at evaluation apprehension?
Cottrell, 1972
What was the procedure of evaluation apprehension experiment?
Completed a well-learned verbal task. Task was completed alone vs mere presence (blindfolded vs audience) the confederates observed participants
What were the findings of the evaluation apprehension experiment?
The only audience condition produced social facilitation
Who found the distraction-conflict theory?
Sanders, 1981
What is the distraction-conflict theory?
The presence of others can drive us to distraction which produces arousal
What is the process of distraction-conflict theory?
Presence of others, it can cause us to pay attention to others or the task, there is attentional conflict, increased arousal, there is social facilitation or inhibition
Who did an experiment on distraction-conflict theory?
Sanders et al 1978
What is the procedure for distraction-conflict theory?
Participants completed easy/hard task alone or alongside someone else. The other participant complete the same (distracting) or different (a not distracting task)
What occurred in the distraction condition of the distraction-conflict theory?
They improved performance on the easy task and decreased performance on hard task
What are the two non drive based explanations?
Self-awareness and self-presentation
Who looked at self-awareness?
Carver and Scheier, 1981
What is self-awareness?
The presence of others makes us more self-aware and elicits comparisons between actual and ideal self and we are motivated to reduce the discrepancy
What occurs when discrepancy is low?
Performance improves
What occurs when discrepancy is high?
People give up and performance decreases
Who looked at self-presentation?
Bond, 1982
What is self-presentation?
Presence of others leads to impression management tactics. Achievable on easier tasks and difficult tasks induce potential embarrassment which leads to mistakes
Who looked at social loafing?
Ringelmann 1913
What is the procedure of social loafing?
Participants pulled a rope attached to a dynamometer either alone in groups of varying size
What is the Ringelmann effect?
Individual effort diminishes as group size increases (social loafing)
What are the explanations from the Ringelmann experiment?
Coordination loss (poor coordination of effort reduces the ability to met maximum output) and motivation loss (people did not try so hard)
What is the Ingham et al 1974 procedure?
Pulling rope either alone or in groups of varying size. The groups were actual participants vs confederates
What is the Ingham et al 1974 findings?
Decrease in output in confederate group show motivational loss of doing the task in a group
What are the reasons why people loaf?
Output equity, evaluation apprehension, matching to standard
Who found output equity?
Kerr and Brunn, 1983
What is output equity?
The belief others loaf and we do so to avoid being a sucker
How does evaluation apprehension link to social loafing?
The individual contribution is not recognisable which linkst to loafing
What is matching to standard?
Unsure of group norm so may not work to full capacity
What is the definition of a group?
When two or more people share a common definition and behave in accordance
What is group entitativity?
The properties of a group that make it seem coherent, distinct and unitary entity
What are characteristics of high entitativity groups?
Clear cut boundaries, clear internal structures, relatively homogenous, members are interdependent and have a shared fate
What are characteristics of low entitativity groups?
Fuzzy boundaries, no clear structure, relatively heterogenous, not interdependent and have no shared fate
Who looked at group entitativity?
Lickel et al, 2000
What is the method of Lickel et al?
Rating 40 groups on 8 dimensions. Interactions and similarity amongst group members, importance to group members, common goals and outcomes, duration, permeability and size. They rated the perceived entitativity of the groups and sorted groups in types by any criteria
What were the findings of Lickel et al?
Perceptions of entitativity varied between groups and were classified in 4 clusters. All dimensions showed relationships with perceived entitativity. Interaction and importance were strong predictors. Size and permeability were negatively related to entitativity
What were the 4 clusters of perceptions of entitativity?
Intimacy groups, then task groups, social categories and last loose associations
What is common-bond?
Attachment between group members
What is common-identity?
Attachment to the group as a whole
What is the sociobiological perspective of why people join groups?
Adaptive value for an increased chance of survival
What does Baumeister and Leary say about sociobiological perspective?
There is an evolutionary need to belong
What is the cognitive perspective of why people join groups?
Understanding the worlds and memberships help how to behave and predict others behaviour
What does Hogg say about the cognitive perspective?
Groups serves an uncertainty reduction function
What is the utilitarian perspective of why people join groups?
It can be beneficial and helps fulfil individual needs
What does Rusbult and Farrell say about the utilitarian perspective?
We join groups because benefits outweigh costs and we may leave if it doesn’t or better prospects exist
What does Johnson et al, 2006, say about why people join groups?
People join groups for different reasons depending on what the type of group it is
What is the procedure of Johnson et al, 2006, on why people join groups?
They rated various groups for how much they satisfied certain needs. They are more likely to self-generate these types of groups when asked to consider these corresponding needs.
What are the three groups that Johnson et al, 2006, found?
Intimacy groups, task groups, social categories
What are intimacy groups?
Fulfil affiliation-related needs such as belonging and support
What are task groups?
Satisfy achievement related needs such as success and accomplish goals
What are social categories?
Satisfy identity-related needs such as uniqueness
What are group norms?
Rules and standards understood by members of groups that constrain social behaviour
Are group norms implicit or explicitly stated?
Implicit
Who looked at norms?
Garfinkel, 1967
What are the procedure of Garfinkel, 1967?
Breaching experiment (they examine people’s reactions to violation of commonly accepted social rules or norms. They task his students to violate commonplace norms or challenge everyday understanding
Who looked at the power of group norms?
Newcomb, 1943
What is the procedure of Newcomb, 1943?
Researched at a small American college with liberal values. Students often came from conservative upper middle class backgrounds. There was a confidential ballot for upcoming election
What were the findings for Newcomb, 1943?
More 1st years were conservative than liberal and more 3rd years were liberal than conservative
What is the procedure of Macneil and Sherif, 1976?
Similar to Sherif’s experiment with many confederates. After 30 trials one confederate leaves and is replaced with a participant. Eventually the group consisted on only participants
What were the findings of MacNeil and Sherif, 1976?
Transmission of group norms lasted several generations after confederates had exited the group
What are characteristics of group norms?
Resistant to change, provide stability and predictability, vary in latitude of acceptable behaviour
What is the findings of Sherif and Sherif, 1964?
There was a dress code of military vs lecturer and some group members (with high status) are given more latitude than others
Who looked at group socialisation stages?
Moreland and Levine, 1982
What does the group socialisation explain?
The movement from each stage involving role transition and the changing relation between group member and group
What do the stages in group socialisation differ in?
Strength of group commitment, the bond between the member and the group
What are the five stages of group socialisation?
Investigation, socialisation, maintenance, resocialisation, remembrance
What is investigation in the five stages of group socialisation?
Groups look for members and individuals look for groups, role transition and harsh initiations
What is role transition in investigation?
Entry where initiation rituals take place
What does cognitive dissonance produce in investigation?
Increase liking and commitment to the group (Aronson and Mills, 1959)
What is socialisation in the five stages?
Members learn the norms of the groups as well as their role but may also influence group norms to meet their needs, group commitment increases until the acceptance threshold is met, role transition
What is role transition in socialisation?
New member to full member where there is less monitoring
What is maintenance in the five stages?
High levels of commitment both the member and the group view the relation as rewarding , role negotiations, member tries to find the role that satisfies need, group assigns roles that help achieve group goals
What does role negotiations increase in maintenance?
Increase rewarding-ness of the relationship
What are the negatives within maintenance?
Group members may lose interest or group may be disappointed by member who violate norms. Can lead to a full member becoming a marginal member
What is resocialisation?
New period of socialisation, group persuades member not to leave and accommodates wishes of the member, member may convince group not to expel group expectations, member may leave or be expelled
What is role transition in resocialisation?
Marginal member to an ex member
What is remembrance?
Ex member and group retrospectively evaluate each other. There could be positive or negative memories
What is the self-categorisation theory?
When groups become salient and we undergo a process of depersonalisation. We act more in accordance with group norms for the benefit of the group
Who found the self-categorisation theory?
Turner, 1985
Who looked at salience of group membership?
James and Greenberg, 1989
What is James and Greenberg’s procedure?
Worked on anagram tasks making words from scrambled letters, scores compared with another uni (the comparison) vs not given this information (no comparison). They were given practice anagrams (wildcat the uni mascot with high salience) and beaver (low salience)
What is the findings from James and Greenberg, 1989?
High salience had more anagrams solved when the comparison is present
How are we biased in groups?
Towards our own ingroups over outgroups
Who looked at minimal group studies?
Tajfel et al, 1971
What is the procedure of Tajfel et al, 1971?
Participants are randomly allocated into groups on trivial criteria and there was a reward allocation task
What were the findings of Tajfel et al, 1971?
There was less reward than the outgroup
What are deviant members?
Ingroup preferences evaporating
Who looked at deviant ingroup members?
Marques et al 1988
What is the procedure of Marques et al, 1988?
Belgian student rate other students. Belgian students were the ingroup and Moroccan is the outgroup. It is desirable to go to parties and to stay at home and work is undesirab;e
What is the findings of Marques et al, 1988?
Ingroup members are more likeable than outgroups
