pe - psychology Flashcards
Skill
Learned ability to bring about pre-determined results - maximum certainty/efficiency.
Open Skill
Skill performed in unpredictable environment.
Open Skill: Example
E.g. Passing ball - Football
Closed Skill
Skill performed in predictable/stable environment.
Closed Skill: Example
E.g. Gymnastics floor routine (handstand etc.)
Gross Skill
Skill uses large muscle groups (Quadriceps).
Gross Skill: Example
E.g. Tackle - Rugby
Fine Skill
Skill uses small muscle groups (Hands).
Fine Skill: Example
E.g. Putting - Golf
Self-paced Skill
Performer controls start/speed of skill.
Self-paced Skill: Example
E.g. Free throw - Basketball
Externally-paced Skill
Performer has no control over start/speed of skill.
Externally-paced Skill: Example
E.g. Receiving pass - Hockey
Discrete Skill
Skill has clear beginning/end.
Discrete Skill: Example
E.g. Forwards Roll - Gymnastics
Serial Skill
Contains several discrete skills to make more integrated movement.
Serial Skill: Example
E.g. Triple Jump
Continuous Skill
Task in which action is performed without recognisable beginning or end, usually cyclic.
Continuous Skill: Example
E.g. Cycling
Low Organisation Skill
Basic - can be broken down into different phases.
Low Organisation Skill: Example
E.g. Triple Jump
High Organisational Skill
Not broken down into parts/subroutines.
High Organisational Skill: Example
E.g. Tennis Serve
Simple Skill
Basic movement actions - not difficult to perform - few decisions to make.
Simple Skill: Example
E.g. Sprinting
Complex Skill
Requires decision making using lots of information when performed.
Complex Skill: Example
E.g. Tennis Serve
Whole Practice
Practicing skill in entirety.
Whole Practice: Pros and Cons
Advantages:
- Saves time doing it all at once
- Good for high ability learners (Autonomous)
- Creates a mental picture
Disadvantages:
- Difficult/too fast for cognitive stage of learning
- Can be de-motivating if skill is done wrong
- Subroutines may be harder to correct all at once
Part Practice
A practice strategy that involves practicing parts of a skill before practicing the whole skill.
Part Practice: Pros and Cons
Advantages:
- Increases confidence and motivation
- Good for learning dangerous skills
- Limits information to process - good for beginners
Disadvantages:
- Limits the awareness for the whole skill
- Limits kinaesthetic development
- May be de-motivating for high ability learners
Whole-Part-Whole Practice
Assessing the skill as a whole, identifying a weakness to practise separately, then putting the skill back together.
Whole-Part-Whole Practice: Pros and Cons
Advantages:
- Uses all stages of learning
- The whole skill is practiced early
- Allows for focus of weak sub routines of the skill
Disadvantages:
- Difficult for low ability/de-motivated learners
- Lots of information to be processed
- Can be de-motivating to return to sub-routines
Progressive Part Practice
Practising the first part of the skill then adding parts gradually. Sometimes called chaining.
Progressive Part Practice: Pros and Cons
Advantages:
- Gives time for feedback
- Transfer from sub-routines is more efficient than part practice
- Kinethesis developed quicker than with part practice
Disadvantages:
- Limited awareness of whole skill and how it should feel
- Transfer to whole skill may remain difficult
- Time consuming
Massed Practice
Schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption (No breaks).
Massed Practice: Pros and Cons
Advantages:
- Skill is over learned/well grooved
- Good for advanced/motivated learners
- Good for the autonomous stage of learning
Disadvantages:
- Errors can increase due to fatigue
- Can be exhausting/boring
- Can cause overuse injuries
Varied Practice
Changing the practice type and the practice drills.
Varied Practice: Pros and Cons
Advantages:
- Difficulty can be altered
- Helps to avoid tedium
- Good for changing situations
Disadvantage:
- Doesn’t remain focused on one thing
- Doesn’t isolate weakness
- Not specific to the sport
Distributed Practice
Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time.
Distributed Practice: Pros and Cons
Advantages:
- Performer doesn’t get tired
- Prevents boredom
- Keeps motivation up
Disadvantages:
- Isn’t consistent
- Gaps between practice musn’t be too long
- Suitable for all stages of learning
Self efficacy (Confidence)
Level of confidence experienced by performer in particular situation
Bandura’s model of self efficacy:
- Performance accomplishment (past success)
- Vicarious experience (watching success)
- Verbal/social persuasion (encouragement)
- Emotional arousal (e.g. anxiety?)
They all contribute to efficacy expectations which performance is dependant on
VEELEY’S MODEL - pic on phone
Effect of audience (social facillitation)
Audience = increased arousal
Expert: Causes performer to produce their dominant response
Novice: Performers dominant responce is incorrect
Evaluation apprehension
States:
- Anxiety caused when individual perceives their performance is being judged causing performance to decline
- Could cause higher arousal if performer felt others were accessing their actions e.g. trials
Distraction effect
Proposes that spectators demand the same amount of attention as would data from sports situation, this added distraction places additional demand on performer
Homefield advantage
Large supportive home grounds are believed to provide home team with advantage
Proximity effect
Arousal levels increase of audience/crowd is close to where performance is occurring
Social facilitation/inhibition
Facilitation - Audience has positive effect
Inhibition - Audience has negative effect
Both cause arousal.
Extroverts/Autonomous - Performance quality is increased by arousal (Facilitation)
Introverts/Cognitive - Performance quality is reduced by arousal (Inhibition)
Types of audience
Both are ‘present others’
Passive others:
Audience- Passive, possibly silent but an interested group
Co-actors- Non-threatening fellow performers
Interactive others:
Co-active- Competitors/opposition
Emotive- Audience (supporters)
Mastery Orientation (Attribution)
- Person who is motivated to become a high achiever in a skill development or performance
- (strong motivation to achieve)
- Attribute failure to effort (stable/controllable factors)
- Are not fazed by failure
- See failure as pathway to improve
Learned helplessness (Attribution)
- Belief failure is inevitable
- Can occur when faced with particular particular situation (specific) or everything (global)
- Attribute failure to internal capability
- Often experienced by low achievers
Self-serving bias (Attribution)
- Tendency for performer to attribute success on internal, controllable factors and failure to external, uncontrollable
- Protects ones self-confidence to maintain motivation
Attribution (Weiner’s model)
Relates to reasons performers give success or failure. 2 dimensions:
Locus of casualty: Whether reasons are related to performer or environment (internal/external)
Locus of stability: Whether reasons are changeable or unchangeable (stable/unstable)
Anxiety before and after performance
Negative aspect of experiencing stress often called ‘stressors’
Before:
- Audience
- Media
- Event/importance
- Opposition/confidence
- Ability/perception
- Injuries
During/After:
- Score/result
- Time left
- Hostile crowd
- Perceived bias (ref)
- Poor performance
- Fatigue
Trait/Competitive trait anxiety
Trait: Relates to performers personality, views as stable
- Performer with high trait anxiety has the perception/potential to react to situations with apprehension (worry)
Competitive trait: Same as trait anxiety but specific to competitive situations
State anxiety
State: Level of anxiety is experienced at any given time as situation is variable/unstable
- Performer might have low anxiety state in certain circumstances but high state anxiety in others
Operant conditioning
Voluntary behaviour is associated with a consequence
Reinforcement
Positive:
- Use of stimulant
- Praise from coach on correctly performed skill
Negative:
- Withdraw of unpleasant stimulus when correct response occurs
Punishment:
- Reduces chance of action being repeated
- Enforcing sanctions
Observational learning (Bandura model)
- Demonstration
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
- Matching performance
Thorndike’s laws
Law of readiness: Must be mentally and physically able to do task
Law of exercise: Must practise the skill regularly in favourable conditions to help motor reproduction
Law of effect: More likely to repeat the task if they experience satisfaction
Attitudes and where they come from
Combination of beliefs/feelings and actions towards an attitude object
Where they come from:
- Family and friends
- Peers and teachers
- Roles models
- Past experiences
- Money and access
Triadic model attitudes
Cognative: ‘Beliefs’ Squash is good for me
Affective: ‘Emotion” I love playing squash
Behavioural: ‘Acting’ I play squash twice a week
Changing attitudes
Cognitive dissonance:
- If all 3 components are negative the performers outlook on the situation will also be negative
- Changing one of these components will make them more positive
Persuasion: (what will make this work)
- Person persuading
- Significant other
- Message
- Receiver/audience
- Environment
Multi dimensional model (memory)
Stimuli:
- Everything from environment that body takes in
Short-term sensory stores:
- Unlimited capacity
- Information held for up to a second
- Filtering process
Short term memory:
- Limited capacity 5-9 items
- Half for up to 30 seconds
- Compares past experiences LTM to recall and activates response
Long term memory:
- Unlimited capacity
- Information help indefinitely
- Can recall by rehearsal/repetition etc.
Leadership
Someone who has influence in helping others to achieve their goals. Maintains effort motivation by setting goals etc.
Considerations to make:
- Situation
- Group
- Leader themselves
Characteristics of good leader:
- Charismatic
- Listener
- Communication
- High ability
- Empathy
- Experience
- Motivational
Theories of leadership
‘Why are some leaders better than others?’ ‘Are the born or made?’
- Trait theory: Believe that you are born with these characteristics and thy are innate. Stable and predictable. People who are good leaders are good in any field of leadership. Evidence that some people struggle in certain situations, but not others.
- Social learning theory: Watch other people lead and copy them as you perceive them to be good or they are looked highly upon by other people. Not everyone would be doing the same thing as a perfect leader
- Interactionalist theory: Personality traits (some) are inherited but other or not you thrive as a leader is due to the environment - may hold up in some environments but not in others
- Great man theory: Extension of trait theory - believe it is genetic and is also passed from father to son
Styles of leadership
Autocratic: (Task orientated) Leader makes decisions
- Dictates instructions
- Concern of leader: Get results/targets
- Good for larger groups/quick decisions/males/cognitive stage of learning
Democratic: (Person orientated) Decisions made by group consultation
- More sympathetic
- Seeks group opinions
- Good for experienced groups, the smaller the better, if there is no time limit and if a group is playing well
Laissez-faire: Group makes decision
- Leader does little
- Independant
- Less motivation
- Good for autonomous/new group to evaluate them/experienced players
Emergent leaders: Selected/naturally arises within group
Prescribed leader: External person brought in from outside group (more common in professional sport)
Stages of learning
Cognitive: Inconsistent/makes mistakes
- Requires support from coach
- Demonstration/repetition is key
- Process of trial and error
- Reinforced through positive feedback
Associative: More consistant
- Simple parts fluent - complex aren’t
- Fewer mistakes
- Starts getting internal feedback
Autonomous: Consistent and effective
- Concentrate on complex tasks
- Motor programmes well learnt
- Practise needed often
- Focus on opponents/tactics
Stages of group dynamics
Forming:
- Dependant on leader for guidance
- Group are new to each other
- Little agreement on aims
- Individual roles unclear
- Leader establishes all direction
Stroming:
- Group decisions are difficult
- Focus is clearer
- Need for compromise
- Leader - advisory role
- inner sub groups form
Norming:
- More agreement/consensus
- Responsibilities accepted
- Group decisions are made
- Team members more friendly
- Respect for leader
Performing:
- Clear vision
- Focus on achieving goals
- Teams don’t need instruction
- Stronger relationship
- Disagreements are resolved
Steiner’s model of group performance
Actual productivity = Potential productivity - Losses due to faulty processes
Faulty processes:
- Social loafing: Individual suffers reduction of motivation causing loss of effort from player (motivational problem - desire/effort)
Why?
~ Poor performance
~ No recognition
~ No clear role
What can be done?
~ Set goals that are more achievable
~ Feedback
~ Give responsibilities
- Ringlemann effect: Operational effectiveness of group can’t be sustained, teamwork breaks down. Larger the team, the harder to coordinate (coordination problem - synchronisation)
Task/Social cohesion
Task: Focuses on goals of group and working well together
- Gives an overall goal
- Accepted by all
- Valued by whole team as collective
- Affiliation strategy
Group: Having good relationship with other team members
- Creates opportunities to socialise and interact positively, making friends
Types of guidance
Visual: Sees the skill being done
+ Cognitive can watch/copy skill
+ Autonomous correct themselves
- Demonstration must be correct
- Needs support by verbal guidance
Verbal: Coaching points/advice etc.
+ Provide performer with feedback
+ Essential for cognitive learners
- Overload cognitive learners
- Detail for autonomous learners
Manual: Physically guided/supported
+ Learn how movement should feel
+ Cognitive - skill for first time
- Reliance on support
- Useless for autonomous
Mechanical: Guided by equipment
+ Support for dangerous movement
+ Independent - no coach
- Reliance on equipment
- Tedious - continuous
Types of feedback
Positive: Given about a successful outcome but it’s not praise
Negative: Information given on an incorrect action
Extrinsic: Information given from an external source
Intrinsic: Kinaesthetic form of sensory, internal feedback
Terminal: Feedback received after the movement is completed
Concurrent: Feedback given whilst the performance is occurring
Knowledge of performance: Quality of movement, based on skills/routine
Knowledge of results: Information on an outcome e.g. score/podium position
Importance/use of feedback
Importance:
- Performer knows how to improve
- Boosts performer’s confidence
- Incorrect actions are stopped
- Correct actions reinforced
- Bad habits prevented
- Increase of motivation
Correct use:
- Compare to previous performances
- Ensure feedback is specific
- Don’t overload performer
- Ensure performer understands
- Link to goal setting
- Consider stage of learning
Types of transfer
Positive: Occurs when one skill helps learning/performing another
Negative: Practice in one activity interfere with another when 2 different skills are performed, same environment
Proactive: Learning a new motor action influences performance/learning of similar action in the future
Retroactive:Learning a new motor action impacts performance of previously learned action
Bilateral: When motor learning is accomplished with one limb, ability to perform the same task with untrained limb improves
Motivation
‘Desire to learn/perform’ (drive)
- Intrinsic motivation: Within e.g. personal accomplishment/enjoyment
- Extrinsic motivation: External source e.g. Rewards/recognition
Arousal
‘State of readiness’
- Cognitive arousal: Mental preparedness e.g. worry, clear focus
- Somatic arousal: Physical preparedness e.g. increased HR/temp
Drive theory
- Linear relationship between arousal and performance
- As arousal increases so does chance of performing dominant response
- During high arousal, Autonomous is likely to perform dominant response
- High arousal for cognitive stage will be low because S-R bonds are weak
+ Explains high performance in explosive skills
+ Explains increased performance by experts because they can cope with high levels of arousal
- Too simplistic
- Not specific to everyone
Inverted-U theory
- Arousal increases so does performance (only to optimum level)
- Beyond optimum point, performance will start to decline
- Under arousal - Attention too wide, taking irrelevant Information (overload)
- Over arousal - Concentration narrows, miss vital cues (hyper-vigilance)
+ Account of individual differences
+ Shows that performance can decline even when arousal is high
- Graph doesn’t explain sudden decrease in arousal
Catastrophe theory
- Performance is best when somatic arousal is high/cognitive arousal is low
- High cognitive arousal decreases performance of high somatic arousal
- Stress management/recovery to get back to optimum arousal
- Not able to control arousal levels so performance continues to decrease
+ Most realistic
+ Explains why performance can suddenly declines
- Doesn’t account - individual difference
- Some performers never experience a sudden decline in performance
Why/how to goal set
Why:
- Increased motivation
- Increased confidence
- Reduce anxiety
- Directs focus
- More attention/drive
How:
- Specific
- Measurable
- Achievable
- Recorded
- Time-bound
Types of goal
Process orientated goals: Improving way you execute skills (tactical)
Performance goals: Judging on most recent performance
Outcome orientated/product goals: Long term goal, desired end result
Aggression vs Assertion
Aggression: Intent to harm outside the laws of the game
Assertion: Forceful and goal directed behaviour within laws of the game
Theories of aggression
Instinct theory: (Trait theory)
- Aggression is a natural response
- Innate and instinctive/animalistic
- Developed aggression as survival
Frustration-aggression hypothesis:
- Frustration always ends to aggression
- When individual’s goal is blocked
- Successful aggression leads to catharsis (well being release)
- If aggression is punished - it increases
Aggressive cue (stimulus) hypothesis:
- Aggression requires a stimulus
- Frustration creates a ‘readiness’ for aggression to occur
- Stimuli are cues that are subconsciously linked to aggression
- Cues can be objects
Social learning theory:
- Aggression learned from others
- Most likely to happen if person being observed is a ‘significant other’
- Imitation of behaviour may be reinforced by social acceptance
