pe - anatomy Flashcards
Inspiratory controls
- Chemoreceptors
- Thermoreceptors
- Proprioreceptors
- SCM/Scaleness
- Phrenic nerve
- Diaphragm
- External inter controls
Expiritory
- Baroreceptors
- Internal intercostals
- Intercostal nerve
Haemoglobin
- Protein
- 4 O2 molecules at a time
- High PO2 associates with O2
- Creates oxyhemoglobin
- Low PO2 disassociates with O2
Saturation
Maximum amount
Association/Dissociation
Association: Haemoglobin gains O2
Disassociation: Oxyhemoglobin gives away O2
Alveoli
Why is if good for gaseous exchange?
- One cell thick - fast diffusion pathway
- Blood supply from capillaries - maintains steep diffusion pathway = more diffusion
- Large SA - increased diffusion
Gaseous exchange
Movement of gases across membrane - diffusion
Diffusion
Movement of substance - area of high to low concentration
Diffusion gradient
Difference in concentration between the high area and the low area
Slow oxidative fibres (Type 1)
- Produce low force/high resistance to fatigue
- Contain myoglobin/mitrochondria
- Aerobic
Fast oxidative glycolytic (Type 2)
- Produce midforce/mid-resistance to fatigue
Fast glycolytic (Type 2b)
- Produce high force/low resistance to fatigue
- Contains phosphocreatine
- Anaerobic
Internal respiration
Between blood and muscles:
O2 - given the muscles via blood
CO2 - taken away from muscles by diffusion (high PO2)
External respiration
Between blood/lungs (alveoli):
Deoxygenated blood from muscles - taken to the lungs to become oxygenated by diffusion (low PO2)
Vasomotor Control Center (VVC) during exercise
- In muscle cells, sympathetic stimulation - decreased
- Arterioles and pre-capillaries sphincters dilate (increasing blood flow to the muscles)
MUSCLES - LOTS OF BLOOD - Leading to organs, sympathetic stimulation - increased
- Arterioles/pre-capillary sphincters constrict
(decreases blood flow to the organs)
ORGANS - LACK BLOOD
Vasomotor Control Center (VVC) during recovery
- In muscle cells, sympathetic stimulation - increased
- Arterioles/pre-capillaries sphincters constrict (decreasing blood flow to muscles)
MUSCLES - LACK BLOOD - Leading to organs, sympathetic stimulation - decreased
- Arterioles/pre-capillary sphincters dilate
(increases blood flow to the organs)
ORGANS - LOTS OF BLOOD
Respiratory control center (RCC)
- Centre receives information from neurons
- Sends direction to change rate of respiratory muscle contraction
Inspiratory control/Expiritory control
IC
- Control centre within RRC
- Stimulates respiratory muscles to control/rest (during exercise and at rest)
EC
- Control centre within RRC
- It is inactive at rest but stimulate additional muscles to work during exercise
Diffusion of O2
Internal diffusion of O2:
- PO2 is of O2 high in capillaries
- PO2 in muscles is low
- O2 diffuses across capillary membrane down gradient
External diffusion of O2:
- PO2 of O2 is low in capillaries
- PO2 in alveoli is high
- O2 moves by gaseous exchange from alveoli to the blood down diffusion gradient
Diffusion of CO2
Internal diffusion of CO2:
- PO2 of CO2 is low in capillaries
- PO2 in the muscles is high
- The CO2 diffuses across capillary membrane down diffusion gradient
External diffusion of O2:
- High PO2 of CO2 blood returning from muscles
- Alveoli has low PO2 of CO2
- CO2 diffuses across capillary membrane into alveoli and it breathed out lungs
Breathing rate
Number of breaths per minute
Tidal volume
Volume of air in and out a normal breath
Minute ventilation
Volume of gas in and out in one minute
Breathing values calculation
Minute Ventilation (VE) = Tidal Volume (TV) x Breathing Rate (F)
Venous return
During rest: blood returns to heart easily
During exercise: Demand for oxygenated blood increases, requiring greater volume/speed of venous return
GET MY RED STUFF PUMPING
Gravity
Muscle pump (exercise only)
Respiratory pump (exercise only)
Smooth muscle
Pocket valve
Mechanics of breathing at rest
Inspiration:
1. Diaphragm lowers and contracts (External intercostals contract)
2. Diaphragm flattens- Ribs/Sternum up and out
3. Thoracic cavity volume increases
4. Lung air pressure decreases below atmospheric air
5. Air rushes into lungs
Expiration:
1. Diaphragm relaxes (External intercostals passively relax)
2. Diaphragm pushes upwards - Ribs/Sternum move down and in
3. Thoracic cavity volume decreases
4. Lung air pressure increases above atmospheric air
5. Air is exhaled
Mechanics of breathing during exercises
Inspiration:
1. Diaphragm lowers and contracts FASTER (External intercostals contract)
2. Diaphragm flattens WITH MORE FORCE- Ribs/Sternum up and out
3. Thoracic cavity volume increases MORE
4. Lung air pressure decreases FASTER below atmospheric air
5. MORE Air rushes into lungs
Expiration:
1. Diaphragm relaxes (External intercostals passively relax)
2. Diaphragm pushes upwards FASTER - Ribs/Sternum move in and down
3. Thoracic cavity volume decreases FASTER
4. Lung air pressure increases FASTER above atmospheric air
5. MORE Air is exhaled, INCREASED breathing rate
Venous returns mechanicsms
Gravity: Blood from above heart is aided by gravity to return back to heart
Muscle Pump: (Only during exercise) veins are situated between muscles, muscles contract and relax to help to squeeze blood towards heart
Respiratory Pump: (Only during exercise) you breath faster and deeper during exercise, abdomen pressure helps to push blood back to heart
Smooth muscle: Layers of smooth muscle in veins helps to push blood towards heart
Pocket valves: One way valves to prevent back flow
Resistance
What can be used as resistance?
- Free weights
- Body weight
- Bands etc.
Resistance: Based on % of performers one rep max
Repetitions: Time exercise is repeated/lifted
Sets: Series of repetitions and rest periods
Work to rest ratios: Volume of relief to work
Factors affecting VO2 max
Physological make-up : Efficiency of respiratory and cardiovascular system, more haemoglobin means more blood can be transported
Age: From early 20s (peak) VO2 max declines 1% yearly
Gender: Females have between 15 and 30% lower V02 max than same group of males
Training: Completing aerobic training will increased VO2 max by 10-20%
Plyometrics
- Series of explosive movements at speed
- Muscles generate greater force of contraction (Creates concentric contraction after an eccentric one)
- Eccentric contractions stores elastic energy to create more powerful concentric contraction
- Stretch reflex is initiated and more motor units are recruited - prevent working muscles being overstretched
Cooper 12 minutes run test (for VO2 max)
- Cones set up 5 metres apart
- 400m track
- Run has far as possible in 12 minutes
- Distance compared to VO2 max table
Advantages:
- Cheap/quick to do
- Easy set up
Disadvantages:
- Can be boring/tedius
- Inaccurate (Doesn’t consider gender)
Direct gas analysis (for VO2 max)
- Run for 10 minutes
- Every minute, incline is increased until exhaustion
- Computer analyses O2 inspired/expired during test
Advantages:
- Very accurate
- Shows progress easily
Disadvantages:
- Requires specialist equipment (expensive)
- Not real life environment
Queens’s collage step test (for VO2 max)
- “Step up step down”
- Test resting HR per min and before test
- Take HR after the test
Advantages:
- Compares to gender
- Requires little equipment
Disadvantages:
- Step remains the same height
- Can be tedious
- Only sub max test
Multistage fitness test (for VO2 max)
- Participants run 20m shuttles back and forth
- Speed of bleeps increase every 8 bleeps (160m)
- Level reached is compared to table
Advantages:
- Easy to do/set up
- Lots of people at once
Disadvantages:
- People may cheat of lie about that they achieved
Training zones
Identify and maintain correct intensity training in order to gain adaptations
80-90% - Anaerobic Zone
50-70% - Aerobic Zone
-50% - Low intensity Zone (Unlikely to progress cardiovascular or muscular capability)
Maximum heart rate
Maximum times a person’s heart can contract in one minute. Can vary based on genetics, lifestyle, health, training and diet
Calculation: 220 - Age (estimation)
Types of strengths
Maximal: Maximal amount of force in one muscular contraction
Explosive: Maximal amount of force in one or a series of rapid muscular contractions
Endurance: Sustain repeated muscular contractions over a period of time, withstanding fatigue
Dynamic: Force applied against a resistance and the muscles change length
Static: Force applied against resistance without movement occurring
Factors that affect strength
Cross-sectional area: The greater the cross-sectional area of the muscle, the greater the strength there is a 16-30N of force per square cm of muscle
Fibre Type: Greater % of FG and FOG, the greater the strength over a short period of time. Fast twitch fibres=large motor neurones=more force in one contraction
Gender: Males have more testosterone, which makes them stronger than females. When strength is expressed per unit of cross-sectional area, this difference in gender disappears
Age: Peak strength males 18-30 females, 16-25 due to a decrease in efficiency of euro-muscular system, testosterone and elasticity which leads to a reduction in muscle mass
Aerobic capacity
Ability to respire, transport and utilise O2 to perform sustained periods of activity
VO2 Max
- Maximum volume of O2 inspired, transported and utilised per minute during ‘exhaustive’ exercise.
- Higher % of inspiration before fatigue = higher VO2
Strength adaptations
Muscular/Connective tissue:
- Muscular hypertrophy/hyperplasm - Increased contraction force and FG fibres
- Increased number/size of proteins and myofibres - Increased protein synthesis/myofibre thickness
- Increased tendon/ligament strength - Increased hint stability and decreased chance of injury
Neural Pathways:
- Increased recruitment of motor unit/FG/FOG fibres - Increased force of contraction - improved coordination
- Decreased inhibition of stretch reflex - Increased force from agonist and decreased force from antagonist
Free body Diagrams
Tell us:
- Where force is originates from
- Size of each force and their direction
- Allows net force to be considered
Weight
Acts downwards - gravitational force that the earth exerts on a body. Always present from the body’s COM
Reaction
Equal and opposite force exerted by a body in response to an action in N
Center of mass (COM)
Point at where a body is balanced in all directions - from where weight begins to act
Near the naval when in the anatomical position, dependant on the distribution of body mass
Horizontal forces
Double the length of reaction force arrow. If weight is equal to reaction and the body remains at rest
Vertical forces
Arrows parallel to surface.
Friction
Force that opposes motion of a surface in contact (N)
Effecting factors:
- Roughness of ground surface: Rougher = More grip
- Roughness of contact surface: Same applies^
- Temperature: Hotter ground or contact surface = more friction
- Size of normal reaction: Increased reaction force = more friction
Air Resistance
Force that opposes motion through the air (N)
Effecting factors:
- Velocity: + velocity = +air resistance
- Shape: + aerodynamic = less air resistance
- Frontal cross-sectional area: Adopting a low crouched position will reduce air resistance
- Smoothness of surface: Smoother the surface = less air resistance
Limb Kinematics
- Study of movements and time taken to carry out the movements
- (Reflective markers placed on the body and data is timed and transferred to digital analysis)
Advantages:
- Make changes to technique
- Examine movements causing injury
- Investigate impact of equipment on technique
Disadvantages:
- Equipment = expensive
- Lack game situation (environment controlled)
- Results don’t account for individual differences
Force plates
Platforms that measures all force applied when performers stand/step/jump on it. Measures ground reaction force vertically and horizontally
Advantages:
- Fast and accurate results
- Gait analysis - Take off/landing techniques
- Results can help plan training programmes
Disadvantages:
- Equipment is expensive
- Lab conditions make it difficult to perform techniques as the plates are too small
Wind tunnels
Chamber in which air is forced. A body is laced in the tunnel and it measures the air around them
Advantages:
- Can be used to represent game situations
- Individual pieces of equipment can be tested
- Investigate aerodynamics and new techniques
Disadvantages:
- The equipment needed is expensive
- The test cannot completely mimic the game situation as they vary
Stability
What is it? Ability of a body to resist motion and withstand force applied and return to their original position without damage
Factors effecting it:
- Mass of body: Greater the mass, greater the inertia
- Height of COM: Lower the COM the more stability
- Base of support: Greater base or number of contact points, the more stable
- Line of gravity: The more central the line of gravity is, the more stable
When is less stability beneficial:
- Changing direction: Moving the line of gravity outside of the body
- Rotating
- Range of motion
Force
Push or pull that alters the state of motion of a moving body in N
External forces
Forces that come from outside a body and act upon it
Net force
Sum of all forces acting on a body when all individual forces have been considered
Isometric contraction
Muscles contract but they remain the same length so there is no motion
Balanced force
When net force is 0, no change in motion, either at constant velocity or at rest
Unbalanced force
Net force is present, body will accelerate/decelerate or change direction
Effects of heat on cardiovascular system
- Reduces O2 transport through the haemoglobin to the working muscles
- Increased HR to compensate
- Increased blood flow may lead to blood pooling
- Increased strain on the system
- Decrease in blood volume
Preparing to perform in heat
Pre - Athletes must acclimatise to the temperature for 14 days or more and keep hydrated
During - Pacing of exercise and clothing must be suitable and they must continue to hydrate
Post - Athletes must hydrate and cooling aids should be used e.g. ice baths
Thermoregulation
Process that allows the body to maintain core body temperature (37 degrees)
Thermoreceptors
Detect changes in body temperature
Cardiovascular drift
Upwards drift in HR during sustained steady state activity associated with an increase in body temperature. Because muscular contractions leads to more heat, this is directed to the skin
High humidity
More sweat. Rise in core body temperature, may result in the body experiencing hypothermia
Energy for exercise
Energy: Capacity to perform, work and exist
Chemical - Found in food
Potential stores - Energy stored in muscles
Kinetic - Occurs when muscles move
Pre-capillary sphincters
Ring of smooth muscle the end of the capillaries - constrict and dilate to control blood flow
Lumen
‘Hole’ in the middle of a vessel
Arteries
Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. Thick strong elastic walls for high pressure
Capillaries
Distributed oxygenated blood from arteries to body tissues and feed deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the veins
Veins
Carry deoxygenated blood (except from pulmonary vein) back to the heart. Large lumen and pocket valves
Arterioles
Contribute to maintaining arterial pressure. They connect blood vessels (capillaries)
Venule
Smallest veins, receive blood from the capillaries
Linking conduction and cardiac system
- Diastole occurs
- The SA node initiates an impulse which travels across the atria causing them to contract an blood is forced actively into the ventricles, this is called atrial systole
- The AV node then delays the impulse allowing the atria to fully contract and finish emptying
- The impulse is then sent along the bundle of HIS and the purkinje fibres (around the ventricles)
- This caused ventricles to contract (ventricular systole) and forces blood out the heart via the arteries
- Diastole occurs again (it repeats)
Sympathetic/Parasympathetic
Sympathetic: Stimulates HR to increase
Parasympathetic: Returns HR to resting values
CCC intrinsic factors
Body temperature:
- Exercise increases body temp
- Which increases nerve transmission
- Reduces blood viscosity
- Increases HR
Venous return:
- Increases during exercise
- Cardiac muscle stretch is increased
- Force of ventricular contraction is larger
- Stroke volume increases
CCC Neural control
Proprioceptors: In the muscles, detect motor movements during exercise
Chemoreceptors: Detect increase in CO2 and lactic acid and decrease in O2 (changes in the bloodstream)
Baroreceptors: Located in the aorta, detect an increase in blood pressure
- Send impulses to the CCC
- Via sympathetic nervous system
- Via the accelerator nerve
- This increases stimulation of SA node
- Which increase HR
CCC Hormonal factor
Adrenaline and Non-adrenaline: Both released from the adrenal glands
- Increases force of ventricular contraction and
- Increases spread of electrical impulses through heart
- Hormonal control signals go straight to the SA node
Oxygenated/Deoxygenated blood
Oxygenated: Blood that is saturated with O2 and nutrients
Deoxygenated:Blood that is not saturated with O2 but with CO2
Systole/Diastole
Systole: The contraction phase of cardiac muscle where blood is ejected with force into the aorta and pulmonary artery
Diastole: The relaxation phase of cardiac muscle where the chambers fill with blood
Pulmonary Systemic circuit
Pulmonary circuit:
- Deoxygenated blood to lungs
- Oxygenated blood to heart
Systemic circuit:
- Oxygenated blood to muscles
- Deoxygenated blood to heart
How a motor unit works
- Brain detects stimulus
- Nerve impulse is conducted down axon of motor neurone (by nerve action potential) to synaptic clef
- Neurotransmitter is secreted in to conduct nerve impulse across gap
- If electrical charge is above threshold, muscle fibre will contract
- Happens in ‘all or nothing’ fashion - muscles will only contract if stimulus is above threshold
Motor unit/neuron
Motor unit: Motor neuron and muscle fibres stimulated by its axon
Motor neuron: Nerve cell which conducts nerve impulse to group of muscle fibres
Action potential
- Positive electrical charge inside nerve and muscle cells which
- Conducts nerve impulse down neuron and into muscle fibres
Neurotransmitter
- Chemical produced and secreted by a neuron
- Transmits nerve impulse across synaptic clef to muscle fibre
Joint features
Bursae:
- Flattened fibrous sack
- Prevents friction
Meniscus:
- Wedge of fibrous cartilage
- Improves fit at bone ends
Pad of fat:
- Fatty pad between bone/muscle
- Cushioning for fibrous capsule
Eccentric/Concentric Isometric contractions
Eccentric: Muscle lengthens when contracts
Concentric: Muscle shortens when contacts
Agonist/Antagonist
Agonist: Muscle responsible for cheating the movement
Antagonist: Muscle that provides resistance for coordinating movement
Planes of movement
Transverse: Passes through the middle of the body, divides body into top and bottom half
Movement - Rotation
Frontal: Passes from side to side through the body, divides the body into front and back halves
Movement - Abduction/Adduction
Saggital: Passes through the middle of the body and divides the body into left and right
Movement - Flexion and extension
Types of joint
Slightly moveable: Provides a bit of movement e.g. joint between vertebrae
Immoveable: No movement, it is stable e.g. joints between the cranium
Synovial: Moves freely, it’s the least stable e.g. shoulder/hip joint
Types of bones
Long: Longer than they are wide e.g. Femur
Short: As short as they are wide e.g. Phalanges
Flat: Flatter the they are wide e.g. Cranium
Irregular: Don’t fit into another category e.g. Patella
Sesamoid: Short bones within a tendon e.g. vertebrae
Appendicular/Axial
Appendicular: Help create movement
Axial: Protect organs
Synovial joint key words
Ligaments:
- Tough band of elastic tissue
- Connects bone to bone
- Stability
Synovial fluid:
- Lubricating tissue in cavity
- Reduces friction
- Nourishes cavity
Articular cartilage:
- Covers surface of the articulating bone
- Absorbs shocks
- Allows movement
Joint Capsule:
- Fibrous sack - inner synovial membrane
- Encloses/strengthens joint
- Secretes synovial fluid
Types of joints
Condyloid: Allows you to flex and extend joint and move side to side e.g. wrist
Ball and Socket: Made of a round end of one joint that fits into another, allows movement in almost every direction e.g. shoulder
Hinge: Allows flexion and extension in only one direction e.g. knee
Pivot: Allows only rotation at the joint e.g. Joint between the radius and the ulna
Gliding: Allows movements between flatter surfaces e.g. joints between vertebrae
Functions of the skeleton
Protection: For organs
Blood cells: transports O2, fights disease, blood cells are produced in the bone marrow
Calcium/Phosphurus: To increase bone density and transmit signals
Movements: Occurs at the joint due to tendons allows range of movement (flexibility)
Shape: Gives us our general structure
Heart values
Heart rate: (BPM)
Number of times the heart beats per minute
Stroke volume: (ML)
Volume of blood ejected from the heart (ventricles) in each beat
Cardiac output: (L/MIN)
Volume of blood ejected from the heart in one minute
Cardiac Output = Stroke volume x Heart Rate
Inertia
Resistance of a body to change it’s state of motion whether at rest or moving
Velocity
Rate of change in displacement often used to describe speed in the direction of travel
Force
A push or pull that alters the state of a body
Momentum
Quantity of motion possessed by a moving body
Acceleration
Rate of change in velocity
Action force
Generated and applied by a body to the ground/object
Reaction force
Equal and opposite force that is generated by the ground or object back to the athlete
Newtons 1st law
A body will continue in a state of rest or uniform velocity unless acted upon by an external or unbalanced force
Newtons 2nd law
A body’s rate of change in momentum is proportional to the size and direction as the force is applied
Newtons 3rd law
For every force applied to a body, there is a equal and opposite reaction force
Biomechanics
Study of human movement and the effect of force and motion on a performer
- Prevent injury
- Improve/Analyse performance
- Maximise efficiency/technique
- Equipment to satisfy activity demand
Periodisation
Organised division of training into specific blocks, each block is known as a cycle and has a specific goal and time frame
Phases
Preparation phase: Pre-season
- General conditioning
- Overload to increase intensity
- Focus of training session
Competition phase: Competition-season
- Training load reduces with rest days
- Fitness is maintained but avoid injury
- Strategies and tactics are discussed
Transition phase: Post-season
- Active rest/recuperation
- Low intensity work ready for preparation again
Factors that effect flexibility
Type of joint: Ball an socket joint
Length of connective tissue: Longer connective tissue = wider range of flexibility
Age: Older = less flexibility due to a decrease (elasticity)
Gender: Oestrogen allows more flexibility in females
Benefits of flexibility:
- Reduced risk of injury
- Improved posture/alignment
- Performance enhancement
- Reduction of DOMS
Types of flexibility
Flexibility: Range of movement at a joint
Dynamic: Range of movement with reference to movement e.g. split jump
Static: (active and positive) Range of movement without reference to movement
Static active: Completing a movement voluntarily to move a joint just beyond it’s point of resistance and requires strength of opposing muscle groups to hold a limb in place
Static positive: Assistance by a partner/aid to move the joint just beyond its point of resistance
Chronic Injuries
Hard Tissue: (stress fracture)
Tiny crack in the bone surface, usually caused by fatigue caused by overtraining/intensity overload
Soft Tissue: (shin splints)
Overuse of the tibias anterior.Most common type is MTSS caused by being overweight/poor footwear/equip
Soft Tissue: (Tendinosis)
Deteration of the tendon collagen as a result of chronic overuse, can be a result of injuries not being given time to heal. Symptoms - Burning, aches, sting
Accute Injuries
Hard tissue: (Fracture)
Particular complete break, result of direct/indirect force resulting in pain, deformity, swelling
Hard tissue: (Dislocation)
When a bone is displaced from its original position. Pain, swelling, loss of movement.
Soft tissue: (Contusion/Haematoma)
Contusion is an area of skin/tissue where blood vessels have ruptured, deep tissue damage is haematoma - localised congealed bleeding from the tissue
Soft tissue: (Strain)
Damage (overstretch/tear) to the muscle fibres/tendon. Usually occurs during dynamic/explosive movements
Soft tissue: (Sprain)
Damage (Overstretch/tear) to the ligaments. Often as a result of a twist or false beyond range of movement
Soft tissue: (Concussion)
Traumatic brain injury resulting in disturbance (headaches/loss of balance/nausea)
Types of treatments
Physiotherapy: Physical treatment of injuries or disease using methods e.g. mobilisation, massive, postural training and exercise therapy
Non-steroid, anti inflammatory drugs: Medication taken to reduce inflammation temperature and pain
Massage: Physical therapy used for injury prevention and soft tissue injury treatment
Heat Therapy: Applying heat to an area before training (increasing blood flow)
Cold Therapy: Applying ice to the injury (reduces swelling)
Contrast therapy: Applying hot and cold
Arthroscopy: Minimally invasive procedure to both examine and to repair damage within a joint
Surgery: Open-surgery
Rehabilitation
Process of restoring full function after an injury has occurred
Aims
- Restore strength
- Restore endurance
- Restore Flexibility
- Restore Speed
Early Stage: gentle exercise, encouraging the damaged tissue to heal
Mid-stage: Progressive overload of the connective tissue and bones to develop strength
Late Stage: Functional exercise to ensure the body is ready to return to training
SALTAPS
For immediate response to injury
S- Stop: Stop the game and observe the injury
A- Ask: Ask questions about it e.g. when, where?
L- Look: Search for signs e.g. swelling/bruising
T- Touch: Palpate the area to identify painful regions
A- Active Movement: See unassisted movement
P- Passive Movement: Move it - range of movement
S- Strength Test: Ask them to send/lift/bare weight
6Rs
For concussion
- Recognise: Should be aware of the symptoms/signs
- Remove: If a player has/is suspected of having concussion they must be removed immediately
- Refer: To a qualified health professional
- Rest: From exercise until they are symptom free and should have company for the first 24 hours
- Recover: Must be fully ready/ symptom free, adults must have one week out, two for children
- Return: Written authorisation and complete graduated return to protocal
PRICE
For soft tissue injuries
P- Protect: From further injuries
R- Rest: For 2/3 days, may need crutches
I- Ice: To help reduce swelling for 15-20 minutes
C- Compress: With elasticated bandaged etc.
E- Elevate: Above heart level to keep supported
Breakdown of ATP
- ATP has three phosphate molecules
- ATPase takes one of them (leaving just two)
- This causes a release of energy (exothermic)
- This changes ATP into ADP
- The store of ATP in the muscle cell is exhausted quickly (2-3 seconds)
ATP-PC System
Type: Anaerobic
Fuel: Phosphocreatine (PC)
Site: (Muscle) Sarcopasm
Enzyme: Creatine Kinase (CK)
Yield: 1:1
Process: Phosphocreatine is broken down into phosphate and creatine and energy is released
Products: None
Advantages:
- Simple compound so rapid reaction to break it down
- Doesn’t require O2 so it is fast. No by-products
- Provides high intensity explosive energy
- Fuel (PC) is stored in the muscles - easily available
- PC is quickly resynthesised (No delay)
Disadvantages:
- Small amounts of ATP/PC stored in muscles and cells
- Provides energy to resynthesise ATP for 8-10 seconds
- Leads to rapid fatigue after 8-10 seconds
- Low ATP yeild
Glycolytic System
Type; Anaerobic
Fuel: Glycogen
Site: (Muscle) Sarcoplasm
Enzyme: PFK
Yield: 1:2 ATP
Process: Glycogen>Glucose>Pyruvic acid>Lactic acid
Products: Lactic acid
Intensity: High Intensity
Duration: 10 seconds to 3 minutes
Advantages:
- Large glycogen stores (Muscles/Liver/Blood)
- Resynthesise 2 ATP. No delay (O2 not needed)
- LA can be recycled and used for fuel production
- Provides energy quickly for high intensity
- GPP and PFK activated due to decrease in PC
Disadvantages:
- Low yield, recovery can be lengthy
- Creates fatigue and produces lactic acid
- Not as fast as ATP-PC system
- Reduces pH which inhibits enzyme activity
- Stimulates pain receptors
Aerobic system
Type: Aerobic
Fuel: Glycogen
Site: Mitochondria
Enzyme: PFK/GPP
Yield: 38:1
Process: 3 stages
Intensity: Moderate-Low
Duration: 3+ Minutes
Advantages:
- Large potential glycogen and FFA stores avaliable/large food stores
- Efficient ATP resynthesis (38)
- There is no fatigue
- Good for endurance
- Lasts forever is fuels are replaced
Disadvantages:
- Delay for O2 delivery/slow re synthesis
- Limited to sub-maximal work
- Slow to metabolise, takes a while to engage
- Complex reaction and recovery
Aerobic system method
Glycolosis
1. Glucose->Pyruvic acid (PFK catalyses)
2. Releases 2 ATP
3. O2 is sufficient/pyruvic acid->lactic acid
4. Link reaction to produce acetylCoA
5. Catalysed by COE enzyme A
6. Allows access to mitochondria
Krebs
7. AcetylCoA and oxaloacetic combine
8. Forms citric acid (oxidises through reactions)
9. CO2/hydrogen/energy are released
10. 2 ATP are released
ETC
11. H atoms carried through EEC by NAD and FAD
12. Splits H into ions and electrons
13. Ions = oxidised, remved as H2O
14. Electrons = carried away by NAD
15. Releases 30 ATP
16. Those carried away by FAD release 4 ATP
Aerobic training adaptions
- Increased storage of muscle/living glycogen
- Increased mobilisation of aerobic enzymes
- Makes use of fats earlier therefore conserving CHO
- Prolongs aerobic threshold
- Delays muscle fatigue/OBLA
- Efficiency in removing lactic acid
Energy continuum
All 3 energy systems are constantly working to ensure the resynthesis of ATP but at any moment one of these systems are predominant
Advantages of increased anaerobic fitness
- Increased PC and glycogen stores and increased tolerance to lactic acid
- So delayed threshold of the anaerobic system allowing the athlete to work at higher intensity for longer
What needs to happen to recover
- ATP-PC stores replenished
- Removal of lactic acid
- Replenishment of glycogen stores
- O2 levels in myoglobin replenished
- Rehydration
- Electrolyte imbalances adjusted
- Muscle fibre restoration
EPOC
E- Excess
P- Post
O- Oxygen
C- Consumption
The volume of oxygen consumed post-exercise to return the body to its pre-exercising state
Projectile motion
An object that is propelled forward through the air by an external force
Projectile
A body in free fall that is subject only to the forces of gravity (9.81ms‾²) and air resistance
Parabola
Once it has left the ground it will follow a flight path called a parabola until it once more comes back down to earth.
Parabolic flight path
A flight path symmetrical about its highest point caused by the dominant weight force of a projectile.
Non-Parabolic flight path
A flight path asymmetrical about its highest point caused by the dominant force of air resistance on the projectile.
Effect of intensity and duration
0-6s - very high intensity - atp-pc
6-30s - high intensity - ate and lactic
30s-3min - moderate-high - lactic
2-3min - moderate - LA and aerobic
>3min - low intensity - aerobic
Threshold
Point where the predominant energy system being used cannot provide sufficient ATP to maintain the current intensity of exercise
Intermittent exercise
Intensity alternates either during interval training session or game where a player may walk run jump etc.
Recovery periods
During recovery breaks, the aerobic system is predominant O2 is used to:
- Replenish ATP and PC stores (50% in 30 seconds) (100% in 180 seconds)
- Resaturate myoglobin and haemoglobin
- Decrease level of lactic acid
Advantages of increased aerobic fitness
- Increased cardiovascular/respiratory capacity
- More O2 can be brought into/transported to/used by muscles
- Increased VO2 max
- Delayed fatigue, lactic acid threshold and OBLA
- Athlete can work at higher intensity within the aerobic system
- Can switch to the aerobic system quicker starts to break down FFAs sooner
- Quicker availability of O2
Predominant energy system
- Position of player
- Size of pitch/court
- Level of competition
- Tactics and strategy
Returning body to rest
- ATP stores replenished
- Removal of lactic acid
- Replenishment of glycogen
- O2 levels in myoglobin replenished
- Rehydration/electrolyte adjusted
- Muscle fibre restoration
Alactacid component
- Accounts for 10% of EPOC
- Requires 1.4 litres of O2
- 50% of ATP and PC stores are replaced in 30 seconds
- Full restoration in 3 minutes
- In 3 minutes, respiration remains high to continue aerobic respiration
- Within first minute, it replenished stores of O2 within haemoglobin
Lactacid Component
- 5-8 litres of O2 required
- Respiratory rate/depth/HR remain high to supply O2 and restore lactic acid and CO2
- CO2 is removed as carbonic acid
- Removal of lactic acid takes up to hour, dependant on intensity
- Body creates more heat, increasing metabolic rate
- Glycogen stores are replenished
Lactic acid removal
- Converted into pyretic acid, non-oxidised returns to the Krebs cycle (50-75%)
- Converted to glycogen (10-25%) called glyconeogenesis
- Small amounts are removed as protein urine and sweat
Linear motion
Movement of a body in a straight or curved line where all parts move the same direction over the same time
Creation of linear motion: Direct force is applied to the body at the centre of mass e.g., Ski Jumping/skeleton
Key descriptors:
- Distance
- Velocity
- (De) Acceleration
- Displacement
- Speed]
Distance-time graph
Rest: Line does not go up or down
Constant speed: Goes up in constant diagonal line (changing)
Acceleration: Line gradually gets steeper, more distance is covered in the same amount of time
Deceleration: Curve starts to level of, less distance is covered I the same time
Angular motion
Movement of a body in a circular path about its axis of rotation, more common than linear motion
Measured: Radians 360 degrees
Creation of angular motion: Eccentric force known as torque is applied to a body outside the centre of mass, caused by an external force
Axis of rotation
Longitudinal: Runs from head to toe, through the centre of mass e.g.m Spin in ice skating
Transverse: Runs from left to right, through the centre of mass e.g., Somersault in gymnastics
Frontal: Runs from front to back, through the centre of mass e.g., Cartwheel in gymnastics
Angular motion discriptors
Angular distance: Total angle body turns from start to finish about an axis
Angular displacement: Smallest Ange between start and finish position about an axis
Angular speed: Rate of change in angular distance
Angular acceleration: Rate of change in angular velocity
Angular velocity: Rate of change in angular displacement or the rate of rotation
Angular momentum: The amount of motion a body or object has during rotation (how much spin)
Moment of inertia
Resistance of a body to change its state of angular motion or rotation (the tighter the performer tucks, the faster they rotate)
Angular momentum and newtons first law
‘A rotating body will continue to turn about its axis of rotation with constant angular momentum unless acted upon by an eccentric force or external torque’
Air resistance and drag
Air resistance: Acts on a body travelling at high velocity through the air
Drag: Action a body travelling through water
Factors affecting air resistance and drag
Velocity: The greater the velocity, the more the air resistance or drag, velocity however cannot be reduced
Frontal cross-sectional area: The greater it is, the larger the air resistance
Streamline and shape: More aerodynamic the body, the lower the air resistance or drag
Surface: The smoother the surface, the lower the air resistance and drag
Projectile definitions
Projectile: A body launched into the air and is subject to weight and air resistance
Projectile motion: Movement of a body through the air following a curved flight path under the force of gravity
Flight path: Shows the overall distance travelled after gravity has accelerated it back to the ground
Factors affecting horizontal distance travelled
Speed of release: The greater the speed of release, the greater the distance
Angle of release: Optimum angle of release is 45 degrees
Height of release: Depending on whether it is positive or negative relative release, the optimum angle of release may change
Aerodynamic factors: Bernoulli principle pr aerofoil
Flight paths
Parabolic: Symmetric about its highest point
- Weight doesn’t change
- Dominant force - weight
Non-parabolic: Asymmetric about its highest point
- Weight changes e.g., shuttlecock
- Dominant force - air resistance
Bernoulli principle
Creation of an additional lift force and on a projectile in flight resulting from the conclusion that the higher the velocity of airflow, the lower the surrounding air pressure
Impact: Additional loft force means the projectile will hang in the air for a longer time
Applies to:
- Javelin
- Ski jumping
- Discus
Aerofoil
Curved upper surface (low pressure - air faster) and flat underneath surface (high pressure - air slower). Air is forced apart and there are different velocities above and below the shape
Airflow diagrams
- Air parts as it goes over the shape, moves at different velocities above and below the shape
- This impacts the pressure of airflow and a pressure gradient is formed which generates additional force
- The curved upper surface forces air flow to travel a further distance and therefore move at a higher velocity
Resultant force
- Shows sum of all force acting on an object using a parallelogram
- Lift reduces and therefore so does weight
- Shows the overall effect of an aerofoil in flight
- Weight and lift both act vertically
Flight path:
- Shows effect of horizontal distance
- Shows overall effect of an aerofoil in flight
Balanced Diet
Diet that maintains or improves overall health. Provides the body with essential nutrition e.g., fluid, vitamins, fibre and energy
Percentage breakdown:
- Carbohydrates 30%
- Fruit and vegetables 30%
- Protein 20%
- Dairy 15%
- Fats 5%
19-51 year-olds calorie intake:
Men - 2,500
Women - 2,000
Carbohydrates
What is is?
Simple (sugars): Easily digested into the body e.g., fruit
Complex (starches): Plant based, take a long time to digest e.g., bread/pasta
What does it do?
- Primary source of energy
- Needed for high intensity work
- Food is digested and converted into glucose stored in the liver and muscles
Proteins
What is it?
- Molecules made up of amino acids (used in body cells to build up proteins)
- Needed for the body to function
- Examples: Meats, fish, quinoa, eggs and nuts
What does it do?
- Muscle growth and repair
- Functioning of enzyme
- Functioning of hormones
- Minor source of energy
- Basics of body structure
Fats
What is it?
Saturated (sweet and savoury): Provides a secondary energy source
Unsaturated (meat and dairy): Mainly made from industrial processed food
- Nuts, oil, canola, butter, soya
What does it do?
- Causes excessive weight gain
- Reduces stamina
- Lead to chronic health disorders
- Limits flexibility
- Leads to high cholesterol (fats found in the blood)
Vitamins and Minerals
Calcium: For muscles to move and nerves to carry message to the brain
Iron: Makes haemoglobin in red blood cells to carry oxygen
Phosphorus: Activates enzymes, keeps blood pH normal, and element in bones
Vitamin A (Fat soluble): For normal vision, immune system, reproduction and growth
Vitamin D (Fat soluble): Help absorb calcium and phosphorus + maintain it
Vitamin E (Fat soluble): Acts as an antioxidant and protects cell
Vitamin K (Fat soluble): Makes various proteins needed for blood/bones
Vitamin C (Water soluble): Helps protect cells against sun, x-rays, other sources
Vitamin B (Water soluble): Releases energy from carbs and fats - helps break down amino acids
Fat soluble - Can be stored in the body e.g., eggs, vegetables, animal products
Water soluble - Can’t be stored in the body, requires to be replenished more frequently e.g., milk, fruit, grains, veg
Fibre and Water
Fibre - Slows down the breakdown of food. Helps the digestive system. Found in wholemeal carbohydrates
Water - Helps maintain body weight. Transports nutrients/hormones. Regulates body temperature
Anabolic steroids
What are they?: Help make an increase in strength and power by promoting bone growth and muscle mass
Benefits:
- Increased muscle tissue and strength
- Reduces body fat
- Increased muscle strength/power
Drawbacks:
- Mood swings in high quantity
- Heart disease
- Males - Testicular atrophy
- Females - Body hair
Erythropoietin
What is it?: Stimulates red blood cells and therefore more haemoglobin can pick up oxygen for the muscles
Benefits:
- Stimulates red blood cell production
- Regulates concentration of red blood cells and haemoglobin
Drawbacks:
- Increased blood viscosity
- Fever and seizures
- Increased risk of blood clots
Human Growth Hormone (HGH)
What are they?: Anabolic - it accelerates protein synthesis and aids the metabolism of fat stores
Benefits:
- Boosts protein
- Promotes utilisation of fats
- Interferes with action of insulin
Drawbacks:
- Risk of heart disease and diabetes
- Blood clots
- Dosage errors
Blood doping
What is it?: Misuse of certain techniques and/or substances such as EPO to increase red blood cells to transport more oxygen
Benefits:
- Aerobic system and oxygen transportation
- Improved ability to sustain maximal endurance exercise
- Reduces fatigue
Drawbacks:
- Blood viscosity increase
- Heart attack and stroke risk
- Increased risk of blood clots
Intermittent Hypoxic training
What is it?: Involves performer training at lower levels of oxygen with intervals to train the body e.g., endurance
Benefits:
- Increases oxygen carrying RBCs
- Utilises oxygen to produce energy
- Improves immune/metabolic systems
Drawbacks:
- Brain damage/respiratory infection
- Increase in breathlessness
- Onset of anaemia and loss of muscle mass
Cooling aids
What are they?: Assist blood circulation, reduces lactate levels and eases muscle soreness. Improves relaxation during recovery
Benefits:
- Helps reduce thermal strain
- Reduces cardiovascular drift
- Reduces sweating/dehydration
Drawbacks:
- Redness on site of application
- Stinging and burning
- May not work successfully/have no or little effect
Glycogen/Carb loading
What is it?: technique to increase stores of glycogen in muscles before before endurance events. Four days before the event, the performer decreases training levels and increases the amount of carbs eaten e.g., pasta.
Benefits:
- Increases muscle glycogen stores
- Gives performer more energy for endurance sports
- Helps build muscle mass/prevent loosing muscles
- Delays fatigue
- Good for endurance
Drawbacks:
- Bloating and gas due to fibre
- Blood sugar changes
- Weight gain
- Digestive discomfort
Pre event meals
What is it?: Provides nutrients and fluid needed to complete a competition or training, provides energy
Benefits:
- Gives performer more energy
- Prevents fatigue
- Decreases hunger pains
- Hydration allows them to maintain their body fluids
- Provides them with calories/nutrients
Drawbacks:
- May cause some digestive issues if non-fibre foods are eaten
During event meals
What is it?: Hydrate consistently and foods which raise blood-glucose
Benefits:
- Avoids ensuing thermal stress
- Maintain plasma volume
Drawbacks:
- Can interrupt the event
- Can overdo it
Post event meals
What is it?: Helps to replenish glycogen stores and electrolyte imbalance. Protein also helps to repair muscles
Benefits:
- Improves recovery
- Decreases muscles soreness
- Increases immune function
- Increased bone mass
- Decreased muscle fat
Drawbacks:
- Poor diet choices
- Food taken too late after exercise
Hydration
How the human body takes in and maintains a steady level of water in its tissues and organs down to the cellular level
Side effects:
- Dry mouth/tongues
- Lightheadedness/dizziness
- Dry skin
- Severe thirst
- Muscle weakness
- Tired/lethargic
Types of sport drinks
Hypotonic: Designed to quickly replace fluids lost during exercise. Contain low salts and sugars
- Lucozade sport
- Hydro active
Isotonic: Best way to rehydrate during and after exercise. Helps to replace electrolytes lost during activities
- Gatorade
- Powerade
Hypertonic: Supplement carbohydrates, provide maximum energy. Contains high levels of salt and sugar
- Lucozade energy
- Red bull
Types of aids
Ergogenic: Substance/object used to improve/enhance performance
Pharmacological: Group of ergogenic aids taken to increase levels of hormones/transmitters
Physiological: Occurs naturally in the body. Improves response to exercise better than normal
Creatine
Stored naturally the body, replenishes quicker during exercise, enables high intensity. Can also be artificially put into the body in e.g., protein shakes
Benefits:
- Improves power and strength
- Promotes recovery
- Anaerobic activity
- Increases muscle mass
Drawbacks:
- Unknown long-term effects
- Stomach cramps
- Weight gain due to water retention
Caffeine
Effects the central nervous system as a stimulant and increases calcium content of muscles e.g., coke or coffee/tea
Benefits:
- Increase alertness
- Increase muscle recruitment
- Enhance strength of contraction
Drawbacks:
- Restlessness/tiredness
- Headaches nd dizziness
- Fast heart rate and insomnia
- Dehydration
Bicarbonate
A natural buffer part of the body’s base balance and helps to maintain proper pH levels e.g., fruit and vegetables
Benefits:
- Helps clear acid out of muscle cells
- Restore optimum pH
- Neutralises lactic acid
- Increases endurance
Drawbacks:
- Increase risk of swelling
- People with heart failure have been associated with bicarbonate
Nitrates
Enhance blood flout the muscles and increase efficiency of contractions e.g., leafy greens and beet roots
Benefits:
- Increases efficiency of muscle contraction
- Increased energy
- Enhance blood flow
Drawbacks:
- Can be toxic in high concentrations
- Headaches
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
Lowest rate of energy needed to sustain the body’s essential physiological state or functions
Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
Lowest rate of energy expenditure needed to sustain body’s essential physiological state or functions - NOT including sleep
Thermic effect
Energy used in the process of eating, absorbing and using food
Metabolic equivalent tasks (METS)
Ml/O2/Kg/min
Calculation of energy expenditure
Periodisation cycles
Macro cycle:
- The entire programme
- Long term
- 1 year
Meso cycle:
- The mid-term programme
- Usually between 4 and 6 weeks
Micro cycle:
- The short term programme
- Usually between 1 and 3 weeks
Tapering
Reduction of training volume and intensity just prior to competition in order to allow peaking to occur. This is because the high volume and intensity of training that helps bring an athlete to their best physical condition also causes impairments in performance
Magnus force
The creation of an additional Magnus force on a spinning projectile which deviates from it’s expected flight path
Types of spin
Topspin: Applied above the COM (spins downwards around transverse axis)
Backspin: Applied below the COM (spins upwards around transverse axis)
Sidespin hook: Applied right of COM (spins left around the longitude axis) causing it to deviate left
Sidespin slice: Applied left of COM (spins right around the longitudinal axis) causing it to deviate to the right
The Magnus effect
- The way the projectile spins determines the direction, velocity and pressure of air flow around it
- Pressure gradient is formed either side of the spinning projectile and an additional Magnus force is created which deviates the flight path
- All forms of spin create a non-parabolic flight path
- Topspin creates a downward Magnus force, shortening flight path
- Backspin creates upward Magnus force, lengthening flight path
- Sidespin creates a Magnus force to the left swerving the projectile to the right (slice) or a Magnus force to the right and swerving to the left
Air flow diagram
- Direction of air flow opposing direction of motion
- Direction of rotation
- Velocity and pressure labels
- More and tighter air flow lines with the direction of rotation side of the projectile
- Magnus force in the direction of the flight path deviation starting from the centre of mass
