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COURSE AUDIT 1 MODULE 2 > PCOG CARBS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS > Flashcards

PCOG CARBS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two types of functional groups in carbohydrates?

A

Aldehyde and ketone.

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2
Q

What is the general formula for carbohydrates?

A

C_n(H_2O)_n.

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3
Q

What is the first product of photosynthesis?

A

Glucose.

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4
Q

What are the two processes involved in the conversion of carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis?

A

Reduction and oxidation.

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5
Q

How are carbohydrates classified?

A

Into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

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6
Q

What are homoglycans?

A

Polysaccharides made of only one type of sugar, such as starch and cellulose.

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7
Q

What are heteroglycans?

A

Polysaccharides made of different types of sugars, such as gums and mucilage.

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8
Q

What is the most important monosaccharide in plants?

A

Hexoses.

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9
Q

What distinguishes aldoses from ketoses?

A

Aldoses contain an aldehyde group, while ketoses contain a ketone group.

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10
Q

What is the simplest natural aldose?

A

Glyceraldehyde.

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11
Q

What is the cyclic configuration of glucose called?

A

Haworth projection.

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12
Q

What is an anomeric carbon?

A

A carbon that has two oxygens and determines the alpha or beta configuration.

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13
Q

How many isomers can glucose have based on its chiral carbons?

A

16 isomers (2^4).

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14
Q

What is a diastereomer?

A

Compounds that differ in 2 or more chiral carbons, e.g., arabinose and xylose (C2, C3).

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15
Q

What is an epimer?

A

Compounds that differ in only 1 chiral carbon, e.g., arabinose and ribose (C2), glucose and mannose (C2).

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16
Q

What are enantiomers?

A

Mirror images of each other where all chiral carbons are switched, e.g., rhamnose and mannose.

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17
Q

What type of sugar is glucose?

A

An aldohexose with an aldehyde group in C1 and a reducing sugar.

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18
Q

What is the only utilizable sugar in the blood?

A

Glucose.

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19
Q

What is the natural source of glucose?

A

Grapes.

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20
Q

What is fructose commonly known as?

A

Fruit sugar or levulose.

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21
Q

What is the sweetest monosaccharide?

A

Fructose.

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22
Q

What is galactose and where is it found?

A

An aldohexose found in milk (as lactose) and neuronal fibers (as galactoceramides).

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23
Q

What condition affects the body’s ability to convert galactose to glucose?

A

Galactosemia.

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24
Q

What are natural sources of xylose (wood sugar)?

A

Corn cobs, straws, heartwood of deciduous trees, and other materials soaked in dilute acids to hydrolyze xylan.

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25
Q

What is the primary use of xylose?

A

As a diagnostic aid for intestinal malabsorption.

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26
Q

What are disaccharides composed of?

A

Two monosaccharide units.

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27
Q

How are disaccharides formed?

A

Via dehydration synthesis, forming ether glycosidic bonds.

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28
Q

What is sucrose composed of?

A

Glucose and fructose, linked by a β-1,2 glycosidic bond.

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29
Q

What is a characteristic of sucrose?

A

It is a non-reducing sugar.

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30
Q

What are the natural sources of sucrose?

A

Sugar cane, sugar beet, and sugar maple.

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31
Q

What is trehalose and where is it found?

A

A disaccharide composed of glucose + glucose, found in brown seaweed and fungi.

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32
Q

What is maltose commonly known as?

A

Malt sugar or beer sugar.

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33
Q

What is the primary use of maltose?

A

As a component in beers.

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34
Q

What is lactose derived from?

A

Fresh cow’s milk and the crystallization of whey, a by-product of cheese production.

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35
Q

What is the glycosidic bond in lactose?

A

α-1,4 glycosidic bond between glucose and galactose.

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36
Q

What causes lactose intolerance?

A

Absence of the enzyme lactase or β-galactosidase.

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37
Q

What is condensed milk?

A

Partially evaporated milk.

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38
Q

What is malted milk?

A

Milk evaporated with malt extract from barley.

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39
Q

What is Kumyss?

A

An alcoholic beverage made from fermented mare’s milk, originally made by nomads of Central Asia.

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40
Q

What is lactulose and its primary use?

A

A synthetic sugar used as a laxative (e.g., Duphalac®).

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41
Q

How does lactulose affect blood ammonia concentration?

A

It decreases blood ammonia concentration in portal-systemic encephalopathy by trapping ammonia as NH4+.

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42
Q

What are tautomers?

A

Constitutional isomers of organic compounds that readily interconvert in a rapid equilibrium.

43
Q

What is the most common tautomeric relation in organic chemistry?

A

The keto-enol pair.

44
Q

What are oligosaccharides?

A

Carbohydrates that have 3-10 sugar units.

45
Q

What is maltotriose composed of?

A

Three glucose units.

46
Q

What are dextrins?

A

Products of partial hydrolysis of starch, formed by amylase and glucosidase.

47
Q

What is the role of α-glucosidase inhibitors?

A

They inhibit the conversion of limiting dextrins to glucose, preventing post-prandial increases in glucose levels.

48
Q

What is raffinose composed of?

A

Glucose, galactose, and fructose.

49
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

Carbohydrates that consist of more than 10 sugar units, used for storage or structure.

50
Q

What is the primary storage polysaccharide in plants?

A

Starch.

51
Q

What is the primary storage polysaccharide in animals?

A

Glycogen.

52
Q

What are homoglycans made up of?

A

One type of sugar only.

53
Q

What is the temporary storage form of photosynthetic products in plants?

A

Starch (glucosan).

54
Q

Name two natural sources of starch.

A

Corn grain (Zea mays) and potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum).

55
Q

What are the two structurally different polysaccharides that make up starch?

A

Amylose and amylopectin.

56
Q

What is the iodine test result for amylose?

A

Deep blue.

57
Q

What is the primary use of pregelatinized starch?

A

As a tablet excipient.

58
Q

What is the end product of α-amylases?

A

A mixture of glucose, maltose, and amylopectin.

59
Q

What is glycogen’s role in animals?

A

Storage form of carbohydrates.

60
Q

How frequently does glycogen branch compared to starch?

A

Every 10 units, more highly branched than starch.

61
Q

What is the iodine test result for glycogen?

A

Wine red.

62
Q

What is inulin primarily composed of?

A

A polymer of fructose.

63
Q

What is one use of inulin?

A

To measure renal glomerular filtration.

64
Q

What type of bonds link glucan in dextran?

A

ɲ - (1 o 6) bonds with some branching due to ɲ - (1 o 3).

65
Q

What enzyme is responsible for converting sucrose to dextran?

A

Dextran sucrase/transglycosylase.

66
Q

What is a common use of dextran?

A

As a plasma expander at 10%.

67
Q

What is cellulose primarily responsible for in plant cell walls?

A

Rigidity.

68
Q

Why can’t mammals digest cellulose?

A

They lack cellulase.

69
Q

What is the natural source of cellulose?

A

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum).

70
Q

What is methylcellulose used for?

A

As a bulk laxative and suspending agent.

71
Q

What is the function of ethylcellulose?

A

As a tablet binder and film coat.

72
Q

What is chitin a homopolymer of?

A

N-acetyl-ɴ-D-glucosamine.

73
Q

What are heteroglycans made of?

A

Different types of sugar.

74
Q

What are gums and mucilage classified as?

A

Natural plant hydrocolloids.

75
Q

What is the primary function of gums in plants?

A

As a protective agent after injury.

76
Q

What are the components of gum tragacanth?

A

Bassorin (60-70%) and tragacanthin (30-40%).

77
Q

What is the best grade of tragacanthin and bassorin for use as a suspending agent?

A

Low tragacanthin and high bassorin.

78
Q

What is the primary use of Acacia gum?

A

As a suspending agent (35%).

79
Q

What is the exudate from Acacia senegal known as?

A

Gum arabic.

80
Q

What type of gum is Karaya gum and what is its primary use?

A

It is an exudate from Sterculia urens, used as a bulk laxative.

81
Q

What is the source of sodium alginate?

A

Brown seaweeds, specifically Macrocystis porifera.

82
Q

What are the components of agar?

A

Agarose and agaropectin.

83
Q

What is the primary use of carrageenan?

A

As a thickener and gelling agent.

84
Q

What is the main property of xanthan gum?

A

It possesses pseudoplastic properties.

85
Q

What is pectin derived from?

A

The inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits or from apple pomace.

86
Q

What is the role of dextran in medical applications?

A

It is used as a plasma expander.

87
Q

What is pectic acid?

A

An insoluble degradation product of overripe fruits.

88
Q

What is chondroitin sulfate used for?

A

As a supplement for osteoarthritis to maintain elasticity of cartilage joints.

89
Q

What is the role of hyaluronic acid?

A

It lubricates synovial fluid and is used in dermatology for anti-aging and anti-wrinkle treatments.

90
Q

What is heparin and its primary function?

A

A natural anticoagulant that inhibits the action of thrombin.

91
Q

What are sugar alcohols?

A

Reduction or hydrogenation products of sugars, such as sorbitol and mannitol.

92
Q

What is the polyol pathway?

A

A metabolic pathway where glucose is converted to sorbitol by aldose reductase.

93
Q

What can excess sorbitol lead to in diabetics?

A

Depletion of NADPH levels, lower antioxidant activity, and possible oxidative damage to cells.

94
Q

What is the effect of NADPH in the body?

A

It activates glutathione and is involved in the pentose phosphate pathway.

95
Q

What is the significance of chitin?

A

It is composed of N-acetylgalactosamine and comprises the shells of crustaceans.

96
Q

What is the main cause of incompatibilities in cherry juice preparations?

A

Pectin.

97
Q

What is the only plant acid that does not carbonize when heated?

A

Malic acid.

98
Q

What is the use of malic acid in cherry juice?

A

Preparation of cherry syrup to mask the taste of sour drugs.

99
Q

What are plant acids?

A

Aliphatic organic acids from plants with 2 to 6 carbon atoms and 2 or 3 carboxyl groups.

100
Q

What is the ratio of citric acid to tartaric acid in effervescent tablet formulation?

A

1 part citric acid to 2 parts tartaric acid.

101
Q

Which acid is a by-product of the wine industry?

A

Tartaric acid.

102
Q

What is the oxidation product of ethylene glycol poisoning?

A

Oxalic acid (forms calcium oxalate crystals).

103
Q

What is the precursor of aromatic compounds and amino acids?

A

Shikimic acid.

104
Q

Which acid is known as the cheapest antioxidant but is very unstable?

A

Ascorbic acid.

COURSE AUDIT 1 MODULE 2 (8 decks)

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