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COURSE AUDIT 1 MODULE 2 > PCOG > Flashcards

PCOG Flashcards

1
Q

What is pharmacognosy?

A

The study of drugs of biologic origin, including their properties and uses.

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2
Q

What are crude drugs?

A

Natural substances that have only undergone the processes of collection and drying.

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3
Q

What is the significance of the Papyrus Ebers?

A

It is an ancient Egyptian document containing 600-700 citations of drugs from plants or animals, discovered in 1550 BC.

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4
Q

Who is known as the Father of Pharmacology?

A

Pedanios Dioscorides.

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5
Q

What does molecular pharmacognosy involve?

A

Manipulation of genes, proteins, and enzymes using biotechnology to influence the synthesis of active ingredients.

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6
Q

What is ecopharmacognosy?

A

The practice of increasing the sustainability of natural sources to avoid depletion, involving proper collection and cultivation.

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7
Q

What is the purpose of drying crude drugs?

A

To remove moisture, protect from microbial damage, and fix the constituents.

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8
Q

What is the term ‘menstruum’ in pharmacognosy?

A

A solvent or liquid mixture that dissolves the chief constituents of a drug.

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9
Q

What is the difference between indigenous and naturalized plants?

A

Indigenous plants grow in their native regions, while naturalized plants grow in foreign lands.

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10
Q

What is garbling in the preparation of crude drugs?

A

The final step involving the physical or mechanical removal of extraneous matter from the crude drug.

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11
Q

What is the purpose of packaging, storing, and preservation of crude drugs?

A

To protect from environmental conditions and insect attacks, and for marketability.

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12
Q

What is the simplest method to preserve crude drugs from insect attacks?

A

Exposure to 65° C.

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13
Q

What are the types of crude extracts mentioned?

A

Pilular, Syrupy, and Powdered.

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14
Q

What is the maceration method of extraction?

A

Submerging the solute in a suitable solvent for 48-72 hours.

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15
Q

What is the purpose of percolation in extraction?

A

To allow slow and intimate extraction using filtration and gravity.

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16
Q

What does organoleptic evaluation involve?

A

Macroscopic evaluation by means of the senses (odor, color, taste, etc.).

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17
Q

What is the significance of biological assays in drug evaluation?

A

To determine pharmacologic activity using living organisms.

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18
Q

What is the best method for determining the official potency of drugs?

A

Chemical assays, including titrimetric and quantitative analyses.

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19
Q

How are drugs classified morphologically?

A

According to the part of the plant used.

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20
Q

What does taxonomic classification consider?

A

Phylogeny, the natural relationship among plants and animals.

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21
Q

What family does guava belong to?

A

Myrtaceae.

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22
Q

Which plant is known for its antihypertensive properties?

A

Garlic (Allium sativum).

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23
Q

What is the primary use of ampalaya?

A

As an anti-diabetes mellitus supplement.

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24
Q

What are secondary metabolites?

A

Chemical entities in crude drugs responsible for therapeutic properties.

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25
Q

What is drug biosynthesis?

A

The process of producing secondary metabolites used as drugs.

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26
Q

What does adulteration refer to?

A

The debasement or spoilage of an article, making it substandard.

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27
Q

What is the significance of gibberellic acid (GA) in pharmacognosy?

A

It increases cardiac glycoside formation in the digitalis plant.

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28
Q

Which plant is used as an anti-gout remedy?

A

Pansit-pansitan (Peperomia pellucida).

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29
Q

What is the role of heredity in the production of secondary metabolites?

A

It influences the genes and variety of the plant, affecting metabolite concentration.

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30
Q

What is the primary function of the active constituents in drugs?

A

They are pharmacologically or pharmaceutically active substances.

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31
Q

What are the two types of functional groups in carbohydrates?

A

Aldehyde and ketone.

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32
Q

What is the general formula for carbohydrates?

A

C_n(H_2O)_n.

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33
Q

What is the first product of photosynthesis?

A

Glucose.

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34
Q

What are the two processes involved in the conversion of carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis?

A

Reduction and oxidation.

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35
Q

How are carbohydrates classified?

A

Into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

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36
Q

What are homoglycans?

A

Polysaccharides made of only one type of sugar, such as starch and cellulose.

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37
Q

What are heteroglycans?

A

Polysaccharides made of different types of sugars, such as gums and mucilage.

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38
Q

What is the most important monosaccharide in plants?

A

Hexoses.

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39
Q

What distinguishes aldoses from ketoses?

A

Aldoses contain an aldehyde group, while ketoses contain a ketone group.

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40
Q

What is the simplest natural aldose?

A

Glyceraldehyde.

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41
Q

What is the cyclic configuration of glucose called?

A

Haworth projection.

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42
Q

What is an anomeric carbon?

A

A carbon that has two oxygens and determines the alpha or beta configuration.

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43
Q

How many isomers can glucose have based on its chiral carbons?

A

16 isomers (2^4).

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44
Q

What is a diastereomer?

A

Compounds that differ in 2 or more chiral carbons, e.g., arabinose and xylose (C2, C3).

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45
Q

What is an epimer?

A

Compounds that differ in only 1 chiral carbon, e.g., arabinose and ribose (C2), glucose and mannose (C2).

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46
Q

What are enantiomers?

A

Mirror images of each other where all chiral carbons are switched, e.g., rhamnose and mannose.

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47
Q

What type of sugar is glucose?

A

An aldohexose with an aldehyde group in C1 and a reducing sugar.

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48
Q

What is the only utilizable sugar in the blood?

A

Glucose.

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49
Q

What is the natural source of glucose?

A

Grapes.

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50
Q

What is fructose commonly known as?

A

Fruit sugar or levulose.

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51
Q

What is the sweetest monosaccharide?

A

Fructose.

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52
Q

What is galactose and where is it found?

A

An aldohexose found in milk (as lactose) and neuronal fibers (as galactoceramides).

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53
Q

What condition affects the body’s ability to convert galactose to glucose?

A

Galactosemia.

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54
Q

What are natural sources of xylose (wood sugar)?

A

Corn cobs, straws, heartwood of deciduous trees, and other materials soaked in dilute acids to hydrolyze xylan.

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55
Q

What is the primary use of xylose?

A

As a diagnostic aid for intestinal malabsorption.

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56
Q

What are disaccharides composed of?

A

Two monosaccharide units.

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57
Q

How are disaccharides formed?

A

Via dehydration synthesis, forming ether glycosidic bonds.

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58
Q

What is sucrose composed of?

A

Glucose and fructose, linked by a β-1,2 glycosidic bond.

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59
Q

What is a characteristic of sucrose?

A

It is a non-reducing sugar.

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60
Q

What are the natural sources of sucrose?

A

Sugar cane, sugar beet, and sugar maple.

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61
Q

What is trehalose and where is it found?

A

A disaccharide composed of glucose + glucose, found in brown seaweed and fungi.

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62
Q

What is maltose commonly known as?

A

Malt sugar or beer sugar.

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63
Q

What is the primary use of maltose?

A

As a component in beers.

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64
Q

What is lactose derived from?

A

Fresh cow’s milk and the crystallization of whey, a by-product of cheese production.

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65
Q

What is the glycosidic bond in lactose?

A

α-1,4 glycosidic bond between glucose and galactose.

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66
Q

What causes lactose intolerance?

A

Absence of the enzyme lactase or β-galactosidase.

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67
Q

What is condensed milk?

A

Partially evaporated milk.

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68
Q

What is malted milk?

A

Milk evaporated with malt extract from barley.

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69
Q

What is Kumyss?

A

An alcoholic beverage made from fermented mare’s milk, originally made by nomads of Central Asia.

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70
Q

What is lactulose and its primary use?

A

A synthetic sugar used as a laxative (e.g., Duphalac®).

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71
Q

How does lactulose affect blood ammonia concentration?

A

It decreases blood ammonia concentration in portal-systemic encephalopathy by trapping ammonia as NH4+.

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72
Q

What are tautomers?

A

Constitutional isomers of organic compounds that readily interconvert in a rapid equilibrium.

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73
Q

What is the most common tautomeric relation in organic chemistry?

A

The keto-enol pair.

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74
Q

What are oligosaccharides?

A

Carbohydrates that have 3-10 sugar units.

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75
Q

What is maltotriose composed of?

A

Three glucose units.

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76
Q

What are dextrins?

A

Products of partial hydrolysis of starch, formed by amylase and glucosidase.

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77
Q

What is the role of α-glucosidase inhibitors?

A

They inhibit the conversion of limiting dextrins to glucose, preventing post-prandial increases in glucose levels.

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78
Q

What is raffinose composed of?

A

Glucose, galactose, and fructose.

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79
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

Carbohydrates that consist of more than 10 sugar units, used for storage or structure.

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80
Q

What is the primary storage polysaccharide in plants?

A

Starch.

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81
Q

What is the primary storage polysaccharide in animals?

A

Glycogen.

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82
Q

What are homoglycans made up of?

A

One type of sugar only.

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83
Q

What is the temporary storage form of photosynthetic products in plants?

A

Starch (glucosan).

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84
Q

Name two natural sources of starch.

A

Corn grain (Zea mays) and potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum).

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85
Q

What are the two structurally different polysaccharides that make up starch?

A

Amylose and amylopectin.

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86
Q

What is the iodine test result for amylose?

A

Deep blue.

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87
Q

What is the primary use of pregelatinized starch?

A

As a tablet excipient.

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88
Q

What is the end product of α-amylases?

A

A mixture of glucose, maltose, and amylopectin.

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89
Q

What is glycogen’s role in animals?

A

Storage form of carbohydrates.

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90
Q

How frequently does glycogen branch compared to starch?

A

Every 10 units, more highly branched than starch.

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91
Q

What is the iodine test result for glycogen?

A

Wine red.

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92
Q

What is inulin primarily composed of?

A

A polymer of fructose.

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93
Q

What is one use of inulin?

A

To measure renal glomerular filtration.

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94
Q

What type of bonds link glucan in dextran?

A

ɲ - (1 o 6) bonds with some branching due to ɲ - (1 o 3).

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95
Q

What enzyme is responsible for converting sucrose to dextran?

A

Dextran sucrase/transglycosylase.

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96
Q

What is a common use of dextran?

A

As a plasma expander at 10%.

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97
Q

What is cellulose primarily responsible for in plant cell walls?

A

Rigidity.

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98
Q

Why can’t mammals digest cellulose?

A

They lack cellulase.

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99
Q

What is the natural source of cellulose?

A

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum).

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100
Q

What is methylcellulose used for?

A

As a bulk laxative and suspending agent.

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101
Q

What is the function of ethylcellulose?

A

As a tablet binder and film coat.

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102
Q

What is chitin a homopolymer of?

A

N-acetyl-ɴ-D-glucosamine.

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103
Q

What are heteroglycans made of?

A

Different types of sugar.

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104
Q

What are gums and mucilage classified as?

A

Natural plant hydrocolloids.

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105
Q

What is the primary function of gums in plants?

A

As a protective agent after injury.

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106
Q

What are the components of gum tragacanth?

A

Bassorin (60-70%) and tragacanthin (30-40%).

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107
Q

What is the best grade of tragacanthin and bassorin for use as a suspending agent?

A

Low tragacanthin and high bassorin.

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108
Q

What is the primary use of Acacia gum?

A

As a suspending agent (35%).

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109
Q

What is the exudate from Acacia senegal known as?

A

Gum arabic.

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110
Q

What type of gum is Karaya gum and what is its primary use?

A

It is an exudate from Sterculia urens, used as a bulk laxative.

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111
Q

What is the source of sodium alginate?

A

Brown seaweeds, specifically Macrocystis porifera.

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112
Q

What are the components of agar?

A

Agarose and agaropectin.

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113
Q

What is the primary use of carrageenan?

A

As a thickener and gelling agent.

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114
Q

What is the main property of xanthan gum?

A

It possesses pseudoplastic properties.

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115
Q

What is pectin derived from?

A

The inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits or from apple pomace.

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116
Q

What is the role of dextran in medical applications?

A

It is used as a plasma expander.

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117
Q

What is pectic acid?

A

An insoluble degradation product of overripe fruits.

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118
Q

What is chondroitin sulfate used for?

A

As a supplement for osteoarthritis to maintain elasticity of cartilage joints.

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119
Q

What is the role of hyaluronic acid?

A

It lubricates synovial fluid and is used in dermatology for anti-aging and anti-wrinkle treatments.

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120
Q

What is heparin and its primary function?

A

A natural anticoagulant that inhibits the action of thrombin.

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121
Q

What are sugar alcohols?

A

Reduction or hydrogenation products of sugars, such as sorbitol and mannitol.

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122
Q

What is the polyol pathway?

A

A metabolic pathway where glucose is converted to sorbitol by aldose reductase.

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123
Q

What can excess sorbitol lead to in diabetics?

A

Depletion of NADPH levels, lower antioxidant activity, and possible oxidative damage to cells.

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124
Q

What is the effect of NADPH in the body?

A

It activates glutathione and is involved in the pentose phosphate pathway.

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125
Q

What is the significance of chitin?

A

It is composed of N-acetylgalactosamine and comprises the shells of crustaceans.

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126
Q

What is the main cause of incompatibilities in cherry juice preparations?

A

Pectin.

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127
Q

What is the only plant acid that does not carbonize when heated?

A

Malic acid.

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128
Q

What is the use of malic acid in cherry juice?

A

Preparation of cherry syrup to mask the taste of sour drugs.

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129
Q

What are plant acids?

A

Aliphatic organic acids from plants with 2 to 6 carbon atoms and 2 or 3 carboxyl groups.

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130
Q

What is the ratio of citric acid to tartaric acid in effervescent tablet formulation?

A

1 part citric acid to 2 parts tartaric acid.

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131
Q

Which acid is a by-product of the wine industry?

A

Tartaric acid.

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132
Q

What is the oxidation product of ethylene glycol poisoning?

A

Oxalic acid (forms calcium oxalate crystals).

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133
Q

What is the precursor of aromatic compounds and amino acids?

A

Shikimic acid.

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134
Q

Which acid is known as the cheapest antioxidant but is very unstable?

A

Ascorbic acid.

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135
Q

What are glycosides?

A

Sugar ethers

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136
Q

What connects the sugar and non-sugar portions in glycosides?

A

A glycosidic bond.

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137
Q

What are the two important biosynthesis pathways for glycosides?

A

The mevalonate pathway and the shikimic acid pathway.

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138
Q

What is the role of UDP-sugar in glycoside formation?

A

It condenses with the aglycone to form the actual glycoside.

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139
Q

What does the shikimic acid pathway give rise to?

A

Aromatic amino acids and phenylpropanoids.

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140
Q

What are the products of chorismic acid?

A

Anthraquinone glycosides, phenols, and alcohols.

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141
Q

What type of glycosides does coumaric acid produce?

A

Lactone glycosides.

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142
Q

What do hydrolyzable tannins contain?

A

Gallic acid and ellagic acid.

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143
Q

What is the significance of the prephenic acid branch?

A

It can give rise to phenylpropanoids.

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144
Q

What does coumaric acid produce?

A

Chalcones, which produce flavonoids.

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145
Q

What are flavonoids required for?

A

The production of condensed tannins.

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146
Q

What is catechin?

A

A flavonoid that is the phenolic nucleus of condensed tannins.

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147
Q

Which acids are related to catechin?

A

Chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, and ellagic acid.

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148
Q

What is the role of HMG CoA reductase?

A

It is a target of statins to inhibit sterol production.

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149
Q

What does the Mevalonate pathway produce?

A

Hormones, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK).

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150
Q

What are anthraquinone glycosides used for?

A

As stimulant cathartics.

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151
Q

What is the mechanism of action (MOA) of anthraquinone glycosides?

A

They increase the tone of smooth muscle in the wall of large intestines and inhibit Cl ion channels.

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152
Q

What is the aglycone of anthraquinone glycosides?

A

Anthracene derivatives.

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153
Q

What are anthraquinone derivatives known for?

A

Orange-red colored compounds soluble in dilute alcohol and boiling/hot water.

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154
Q

What gives anthraquinone derivatives their solubility?

A

The hydroxyl group.

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155
Q

What color do anthraquinone derivatives give with a base like NH3 or NaOH?

A

Red, violet, or green.

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156
Q

What is the most reduced type of anthraquinone?

A

Anthranol.

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157
Q

What is the main constituent of Senna?

A

Sennoside.

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158
Q

What is the scientific name for Cascara Sagrada?

A

Rhamnus purshianus.

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159
Q

What are the main constituents of Cascara Sagrada?

A

Cascarosides A, B, C, and D.

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160
Q

What is the primary use of Cascara Sagrada?

A

As a cathartic for habitual constipation.

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161
Q

How should Cascara Sagrada be treated before use?

A

It should be aged for at least 1 year.

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162
Q

What is done to reduce the bitter taste of Cascara Sagrada?

A

Cured with MgO or alkaline earths.

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163
Q

What is the scientific name of Alder Buckthorn?

A

Rhamnus frangula.

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164
Q

What are the main constituents of Aloe?

A

Barbaloin and chrysophanic acid.

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165
Q

What is the primary use of Aloe vera gel?

A

Treatment of burns, abrasions, and skin irritations.

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166
Q

What is the scientific name for Chinese Rhubarb?

A

Rheum officinale, R. palmatum, R. raponticum.

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167
Q

What are the major constituents of Senna?

A

Sennosides A and B.

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168
Q

What is the use of Goa powder?

A

Keratolytic agent for psoriasis, trichophytosis, and eczema.

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169
Q

What is the main active compound in St. John’s Wort?

A

Hyperforin.

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170
Q

What is the effect of Hyperforin?

A

Acts as a reuptake inhibitor and increases neurotransmitters.

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171
Q

What is Arbutin derived from?

A

Dried leaves of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.

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172
Q

What is the primary use of Bearberry?

A

Diuretic and weak urinary antiseptic.

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173
Q

What is the scientific name of Willow?

A

Salix purpurea and S. fragilis.

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174
Q

What is the primary constituent found in Willow?

A

Salicin.

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175
Q

What does salicin produce after hydrolysis with emulsin?

A

Saligenin/salicylic alcohol (aglycone).

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176
Q

What is the use of salicin?

A

Antirheumatic (like salicylic acid).

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177
Q

What is the scientific name of Poplar?

A

Populus tremuloides or Populus tremula.

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178
Q

What is the primary constituent found in Poplar?

A

Populin (benzoylsalicin).

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179
Q

What is the scientific name of Black Haw?

A

Viburnum prunifolium.

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180
Q

What are the uses of Black Haw?

A

Dysmenorrhea, bleeding, asthma.

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181
Q

What is the scientific name of Hops?

A

Humulus lupulus.

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182
Q

What is the primary constituent found in Hops?

A

Lupulin.

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183
Q

What is the scientific name of Kamala/Banato?

A

Mallotus philippinensis.

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184
Q

What is the use of Kamala?

A

Anthelmintic for tapeworm infestation.

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185
Q

What is the scientific name of Vanilla?

A

Vanilla planifolia or Vanilla tahitensis.

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186
Q

What is the principal flavoring constituent of Vanilla?

A

Vanillin.

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187
Q

What is the second most expensive spice in the world?

A

Vanilla.

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188
Q

What is the primary structure of flavonoids derived from?

A

The phenylpropanoid branch of the shikimate pathway.

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189
Q

What is the nucleus most flavonoids have?

A

Gamma-benzopyrone.

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190
Q

What is quercetin used for in pharmacognosy?

A

As a standard to determine the total flavonoid content of an extract.

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191
Q

What are isoflavonoids known for?

A

Being precursors to estrogen, also known as phytoestrogens.

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192
Q

What are the components yielded by rutin?

A

Quercetin (aglycone), rhamnose, and glucose.

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193
Q

What is the significance of phenol rings and hydroxyl groups in flavonoids?

A

They are responsible for the antioxidant properties.

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194
Q

What is the effect of increasing hydroxyl groups on antioxidant activity?

A

More hydroxyl groups lead to better antioxidant activity.

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195
Q

What is the common color change of anthocyanidins when boiled or acid is added?

A

They become colorless (Leucocyanidin).

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196
Q

What is the largest group of naturally occurring phenols?

A

Flavonoids.

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197
Q

What are chalcones known for in terms of plant pigmentation?

A

They are yellow pigments found in flowers.

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198
Q

What is the scientific name of Milk Thistle?

A

Silybium marianum.

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199
Q

What are the constituents of Milk Thistle known for their hepatoprotective effect?

A

Silbinin (a mix of silybin A and silybin B).

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200
Q

What is the active constituent of Soy Isoflavones?

A

Genistein.

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201
Q

What are the uses of Soy Isoflavones?

A

Prevents atherosclerosis, increases memory and mental flexibility, and alleviates menopausal symptoms.

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202
Q

What is the primary benefit of Tea Catechins?

A

Controls lipid levels and prevents atherosclerosis and coronary disease.

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203
Q

What is the potential anticancer compound found in Tea?

A

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG).

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204
Q

What is the scientific name of Cacao?

A

Theobroma cacao.

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205
Q

What are the constituents of Cranberry that help prevent UTI-causing microbes?

A

Procyanidins and other flavonoids and polyphenols.

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206
Q

What is the lactone glycoside that is a hydroxycinnamic acid lactone used as a flavoring agent?

A

Coumarin.

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207
Q

What is the anticoagulant derived from Coumarin?

A

Warfarin.

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208
Q

What are furanocoumarins and where are they found?

A

Furanocoumarins are compounds found in grapefruit juice.

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209
Q

What is the effect of furanocoumarins on CYP450 enzymes?

A

They inhibit CYP450 enzymes (CYP3A4, CYP3A5), leading to higher drug concentrations and potential toxicity.

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210
Q

What serious condition can occur when statins are taken with grapefruit juice?

A

Rhabdomyolysis.

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211
Q

What is the role of warfarin in anticoagulation?

A

Warfarin inhibits the reduction of vitamin K, preventing the activation of clotting factors.

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212
Q

What is the consequence of taking warfarin?

A

It leads to bleeding due to the inability to convert clotting factors to their active form.

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213
Q

What is dicoumarol and its source?

A

Dicoumarol is derived from improperly cured leaves and flowering tops of Melilotus officinalis and is used as an anticoagulant.

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214
Q

What is cantharidin and its uses?

A

Cantharidin is a constituent of Cantharis vesicatoria, used as an irritant, vesicant, rubefacient, and aphrodisiac.

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215
Q

What are psoralens and their medicinal uses?

A

Psoralens, such as methoxsalen, aid in repigmentation for idiopathic vitiligo and control symptoms of psoriasis.

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216
Q

What is the scientific name for grapefruit juice?

A

Citrus paradisi.

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217
Q

What are cardiac glycosides known for?

A

They have a specific action on cardiac tissues, increasing the force of systolic contraction.

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218
Q

What are the aglycones associated with cardiac glycosides?

A

Cardenolide and bufadienolide.

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219
Q

What is the primary effect of inhibiting Na+/K+ ATPase in heart muscles?

A

It increases the Ca+2 inside the heart muscles, leading to a positive inotropic effect.

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220
Q

What is the use of cardiac glycosides like Digitalis?

A

They are used for Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) to help pump out enough blood.

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221
Q

What are the two main types of cardiac glycosides?

A

Cardenolides and Bufadienolides.

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222
Q

What is a characteristic of Cardenolides?

A

They have a five-member unsaturated lactone and usually contain 23 carbons.

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223
Q

What distinguishes Bufadienolides from Cardenolides?

A

Bufadienolides have a six-member unsaturated lactone and usually contain 24 carbons.

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224
Q

What are the active constituents of Digitalis purpurea?

A

Digitoxin, gitoxin, and gitaloxin.

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225
Q

What is the difference in half-life between Digitoxin and Digoxin?

A

Digitoxin has a longer half-life (168 to 192 hours) compared to Digoxin (30 to 40 hours).

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226
Q

What is the role of Digibind or DigiFab?

A

They are digoxin-specific antibodies that bind to excess digoxin in the blood for excretion.

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227
Q

What electrolyte imbalances can occur with digitalis use?

A

Hypercalcemia, hypernatremia, and hypokalemia.

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228
Q

What is the scientific name of Black Indian Hemp?

A

Apocynum cannabinum.

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229
Q

What is the scientific name of Lily of the Valley?

A

Convallaria majalis.

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230
Q

What is the main constituent of Black Hellebore?

A

Hellebrin.

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231
Q

What are the constituents of Adonis?

A

Adonitoxin, cymarin, K-strophantin.

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232
Q

What is the use of Strophanthus seeds?

A

Preparation of arrow poisons.

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233
Q

What is the main constituent of Squill?

A

Scillaren A.

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234
Q

What is the scientific name of Oleander?

A

Nerium oleander.

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235
Q

What does the Keller Kiliani test indicate?

A

Presence of deoxy sugar.

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236
Q

What is a characteristic of saponin glycosides in aqueous solution?

A

They form a froth.

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237
Q

What is the effect of saponins on red blood cells?

A

They can hemolyze RBCs.

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238
Q

What is the qualitative test for saponins?

A

Froth test.

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239
Q

What is the primary use of Dioscorea floribunda?

A

It is the best source of steroids and major precursors of glucocorticoids.

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240
Q

What are the constituents of Sarsaparilla root?

A

Smilagenin, sarsasapogenin, and parillin.

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241
Q

What are the uses of Ginseng?

A

It is used as an aphrodisiac, adaptogen, and for treating anemia, diabetes, gastritis, and sexual impotence.

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242
Q

What is Glycyrrhizin and its primary use?

A

It is a sweet compound used as an expectorant and flavoring agent.

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243
Q

What caution should be taken when using Liquorice?

A

It can cause fluid/Na+ retention and reduce K+, leading to hypernatremia and hypokalemia.

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244
Q

What are the constituents of Gotu Kola?

A

Asiaticoside and centelloside.

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245
Q

What is the primary use of Quillaja bark?

A

It is used as a detergent and emulsifier.

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246
Q

What is the historical use of Gugo?

A

It was used to wash hair (shampoo).

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247
Q

What role do steroids play in humans?

A

They are essential for steroid hormones, Vitamin D, and other biological functions.

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248
Q

What are some significant natural plant products related to steroids?

A

Cardiac glycosides, saponins, and steroidal alkaloids.

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249
Q

What is the scientific name of White Mustard?

A

Brassica alba.

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250
Q

What is the main constituent of White Mustard?

A

Sinalbin.

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251
Q

What does Sinalbin yield after hydrolysis?

A

Acrinyl isothiocyanate.

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252
Q

What is the purpose of the Ferric Chloride Test?

A

To identify non-volatile glycosides.

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253
Q

What is the scientific name of the plant that produces Steviosides?

A

Stevia rebaudiana.

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254
Q

How much sweeter are Steviosides compared to sugar?

A

200-300 times.

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255
Q

What is the scientific name of Red Sandalwood?

A

Pterocarpus santalinus.

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256
Q

What is the main constituent of Red Sandalwood?

A

Santalin.

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257
Q

What is the scientific name of Fishberry?

A

Anamirta cocculus.

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258
Q

What is the main constituent of Fishberry?

A

Picrotoxin.

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259
Q

Which glycoside is used as a treatment for idiopathic vitiligo?

A

Psoralens.

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260
Q

Which of the following is not a cardiac glycoside: Apocynum, Convallaria, Strophantus, or Green Hellebore?

A

Green Hellebore.

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261
Q

What is the aldehyde responsible for the aroma and taste of vanilla?

A

Vanillin.

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262
Q

What are tannins primarily composed of?

A

A mixture of polyphenols that do not crystallize.

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263
Q

What are the usual sources of tannins?

A

Barks and stems.

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264
Q

What are some uses of tannins?

A

Astringent, antidote to alkaloidal poisoning, precipitants, and in the tanning and dyeing industry.

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265
Q

What is a caution associated with tannins?

A

They can be carcinogenic, such as in the chewing of betel nut.

266
Q

What are pseudotannins?

A

Simpler phenolic substances with a molecular weight of around <1,000.

267
Q

How do pseudotannins differ from true tannins?

A

Pseudotannins do not precipitate leather but can precipitate gelatin.

268
Q

What is the molecular weight range of true tannins?

A

Around 1,000 to 5,000.

269
Q

What is the significance of molecular size in true tannins?

A

They must be moderate-sized to effectively crosslink protein molecules.

270
Q

What are the two classifications of true tannins?

A

Hydrolyzable tannins and non-hydrolyzable tannins.

271
Q

What happens to hydrolyzable tannins when treated with 3N HCl?

A

They are easily hydrolyzed to sugar and phenolic acids.

272
Q

What color indicates a positive test for tannins with FeCl3?

A

Blue-black color.

273
Q

What is the result of the matchstick test for tannins?

A

A positive result shows a pink or red color.

274
Q

What are hydrolyzable tannins primarily composed of?

A

They contain glucose, thus forming glycosides.

275
Q

How are hydrolyzable tannins classified?

A

Based on the phenolic aglycones, such as gallotannin and ellagitannin.

276
Q

What is the aglycone of gallotannin?

A

Gallic acid.

277
Q

What distinguishes non-hydrolyzable (condensed) tannins from hydrolyzable tannins?

A

Non-hydrolyzable tannins contain flavonoids and do not readily hydrolyze to simpler molecules.

278
Q

What are common sources of non-hydrolyzable tannins?

A

Cinnamon bark, hamamelis bark, Krameria, male fern roots, cocoa, kola, and areca seed.

279
Q

What is a characteristic of complex tannins?

A

They are a hybrid mix of both hydrolyzable and non-hydrolyzable tannins.

280
Q

What is the scientific name of witch hazel?

A

Hamamelis virginiana.

281
Q

What are the uses of witch hazel?

A

It has astringent and hemostatic properties and is anti-inflammatory.

282
Q

What is the scientific name of nutgall?

A

Quercus infectoria.

283
Q

What causes the formation of nutgall?

A

The puncture of the insect Cynips tinctoria.

284
Q

What is the primary use of nutgall?

A

In the tanning and dyeing industry, as well as an astringent.

285
Q

What is the scientific name of Pomegranate?

A

Punica granatum.

286
Q

What is the primary constituent of Pomegranate?

A

28% ellagitannin (primarily punicalagin).

287
Q

What are the uses of Pomegranate?

A

Astringent, for diarrhea, synergism with antibiotics, potential against herpes and HIV.

288
Q

What is the scientific name of Cranberry?

A

Vaccinium macrocarpon.

289
Q

What is the primary use of Cranberry?

A

For urinary tract infections.

290
Q

What is the solubility of Cranberry constituents?

A

Soluble in water, alcohol, glycerol, dilute alkalis, and acetone

291
Q

What does the Gelatin Test indicate?

A

It yields positive for both true tannin and pseudotannin.

292
Q

What is the significance of the Matchstick Test?

A

It tests for catechin (pseudotannin) and indicates the presence of non-hydrolysable tannins.

293
Q

What are general uses of tannins?

A

Astringent, treatment for burns, protein precipitant, antioxidant, and antidote.

294
Q

What are the dangers associated with tannins?

A

Can cause severe central necrosis of the liver (hepatotoxic) and are carcinogenic.

295
Q

What is the basic unit of lipids?

A

Triglyceride, formed from three fatty acids and one glycerol.

296
Q

What are the three kinds of lipids mentioned?

A

Fixed oils, fats, and waxes.

297
Q

What is the state of fixed oils at room temperature?

A

Liquid, except for cocoa butter.

298
Q

What distinguishes fats from fixed oils?

A

Fats are saturated and solid at room temperature, while fixed oils are unsaturated and liquid.

299
Q

What is unique about jojoba oil?

A

It is the only liquid plant wax.

300
Q

What does the acid value measure?

A

The number of mg KOH needed to neutralize the free acids in 1 g of sample.

301
Q

What does the iodine number indicate?

A

The degree of unsaturation in fats or oils, measuring the number of double bonds.

302
Q

What are the three classes of active ingredients in medicinal plants?

A

Terpenes, aromatic compounds, and alkaloids.

303
Q

What is the significance of the mevalonate pathway?

A

It is involved in the biosynthesis of terpenoids and fatty acids.

304
Q

What is the role of Acetyl CoA in lipid biosynthesis?

A

It combines with malonyl to form fatty acids, glycerol, and other lipids.

305
Q

What is the starting compound in the Mevalonate Pathway that leads to the formation of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP)?

A

Mevalonate.

306
Q

What are the two isomers produced in the Mevalonate Pathway?

A

Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP).

307
Q

What is the product of the reaction between DMAPP and IPP?

A

Geranyl Pyrophosphate (GPP).

308
Q

What does GPP combine with to form Farnesyl Pyrophosphate (FPP)?

A

Another molecule of IPP.

309
Q

What are the two types of volatile oils derived from monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes?

A

Acyclic and cyclic non-aromatic volatile oils.

310
Q

What are the products of FPP when it undergoes further reactions?

A

Sterols and triterpenes.

311
Q

What is the role of Ubiquinone in the Electron Transport Chain?

A

It acts as an electron carrier and is an antioxidant.

312
Q

What is the main unit of triglycerides?

A

Glycerol and three fatty acids.

313
Q

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated triglycerides?

A

Saturated triglycerides have no double bonds, while unsaturated triglycerides have double bonds.

314
Q

What is the scientific name of the castor oil seed?

A

Ricinus communis.

315
Q

What toxic component is found in castor oil seeds?

A

Ricin, a toxic lectin.

316
Q

What is the primary use of ricinoleic acid derived from castor oil?

A

As a stimulant cathartic and in vaginal jelly.

317
Q

What is the scientific name of Olive Oil?

A

Ripe fruit of Olea europea.

318
Q

What is the primary use of Castor Oil?

A

Plasticizer in flexible collodion.

319
Q

What is Azelaic acid used for?

A

Treatment of acne.

320
Q

What is the scientific name of Soybean Oil?

A

Ripe seed of Glycine soja.

321
Q

What is a significant constituent of Coconut Oil?

A

Lauric and myristic acids.

322
Q

What is the primary use of Safflower Oil?

A

Varnish or waterproofing material, antilipemic.

323
Q

What is the scientific name of Theobroma Oil?

A

Roasted seeds of Theobroma cacao.

324
Q

What is the main constituent of Saw Palmetto?

A

Lauric acid.

325
Q

What is the use of Ethiodized Oil?

A

Radiopaque

326
Q

What are the constituents of Rapeseed/Canola Oil?

A

Oleic, linoleic, linolenic acids.

327
Q

What is the scientific name for corn oil?

A

Oil from the embryo of Zea mays.

328
Q

What are the main constituents of corn oil?

A

Oleic and linoleic acid.

329
Q

What is gossypol and where is it found?

A

A toxic principle found in cottonseed oil (Gossypium hirsutum).

330
Q

What is the primary use of peanut oil?

A

As a dietary supplement and cooking oil.

331
Q

What is lanolin derived from?

A

Purified fat-like substance from the wool of sheep (Ovis aries).

332
Q

What is the main therapeutic use of cod liver oil?

A

It is a predominant source of vitamins A and D.

333
Q

What fatty acids are produced from the hydrolysis of fats or oils?

A

Stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid.

334
Q

What is the use of stearic acid?

A

As an emulsion adjunct and tablet lubricant.

335
Q

What is the significance of linoleic and linolenic acid?

A

They are essential fatty acids and precursors of prostaglandins.

336
Q

What is the scientific name for lard?

A

From the purified internal fat of Sus scrofa (pig).

337
Q

What are the types of saturated fatty acids listed?

A

Caproic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, and arachidic.

338
Q

What are the types of unsaturated fatty acids listed?

A

Palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic.

339
Q

What is the classification of unsaturated fatty acids based on the number of double bonds?

A

Monounsaturated (1 C=C) or polyunsaturated (more than 1).

340
Q

What is the delta notation used for in unsaturated fatty acids?

A

It indicates the number of carbons, double bonds, and locants of double bonds.

341
Q

What is the omega number in fatty acids?

A

It represents the number of carbons from the last one before reaching the first double bond.

342
Q

What is the primary function of waxes in plants?

A

Protection from loss of water and control of consistency in ointments and cosmetic creams.

343
Q

What is spermaceti and its source?

A

A wax obtained from the head of the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus).

344
Q

What is beeswax and its significant lipid constituents?

A

A wax produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera), containing myricyl palmitate and free cerotic acid.

345
Q

What is the use of propolis collected by bees?

A

It is used to fill cracks or gaps in the hive.

346
Q

What is the scientific name of carnauba wax?

A

Copernicia prunifera.

347
Q

What are prostaglandins derived from?

A

C20 lipid metabolites derived from essential unsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid.

348
Q

What is the use of Prostaglandin E1 (PGE1)?

A

Palliative therapy for neonates with patent ductus arteriosus and congenital heart defects.

349
Q

What is the primary use of Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)?

A

Termination of second trimester pregnancy.

350
Q

What adverse effects are associated with Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)?

A

Vomiting, pyrexia, diarrhea, nausea, but no hypertension and vasoconstriction.

351
Q

What is the function of Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α)?

A

It acts as a uterine stimulant and is used for termination of second trimester pregnancy.

352
Q

What is the use of 15-Methylprostaglandin F2α (Carboprost)?

A

Termination of second trimester pregnancy and as a uterine stimulant given deep IM.

353
Q

What is Misoprostol used for?

A

Treatment of NSAID-induced ulcers

354
Q

Why is Misoprostol banned in some countries?

A

Due to its abortifacient properties.

355
Q

What are eicosanoids derived from?

A

C20 derivatives of arachidonic acid.

356
Q

What enzymes are involved in the production of eicosanoids?

A

COX and LOX enzymes.

357
Q

What are the main types of eicosanoid derivatives?

A

Prostaglandin, prostacyclin, thromboxane, HETEs, leukotriene, lipoxin.

358
Q

What is the role of NSAIDs in relation to COX enzymes?

A

NSAIDs inhibit COX enzymes, reducing the production of prostanoids.

359
Q

What is a potential side effect of COX-2 inhibitors?

A

They may be linked to cardiovascular problems.

360
Q

What is the effect of leukotrienes in asthma?

A

Leukotrienes are 400x more potent as inflammatory agents and bronchoconstrictors than prostaglandins.

361
Q

Why are NSAIDs contraindicated for asthmatic patients?

A

Inhibiting COX can lead to increased LOX activity, inducing bronchoconstriction.

362
Q

What is the role of corticosteroids in asthma management?

A

They inhibit phospholipase, preventing the formation of arachidonic acid and inflammation.

363
Q

What do bronchodilators do in asthma treatment?

A

They help relieve asthma attacks by dilating the airways.

364
Q

What are the characteristics of volatile oils?

A

They are odoriferous, optically active, immiscible with water, and soluble in organic solvents.

365
Q

What is the principal component of essential oils?

A

Terpenes.

366
Q

What is the function of volatile oils in plants?

A

They act as insect repellants and attractants for fertilization.

367
Q

Which method is best for obtaining citrus volatile oils?

A

Expression.

368
Q

What is the difference between fixed oils and volatile oils?

A

Fixed oils cannot be distilled, while volatile oils can be distilled from natural sources.

369
Q

What is the process of repeated distillation to purify volatile oils called?

A

Cohobation.

370
Q

What is the method used for glycosidic volatile oils?

A

Enzymatic hydrolysis.

371
Q

What type of distillation is applied to fresh materials without maceration?

A

Direct steam distillation.

372
Q

What are the anatomical sources of volatile oils in the Rutaceae family?

A

Schizogenous/lysigenous ducts.

373
Q

What is the role of anhydrous calcium sulfate in essential oil extraction?

A

It acts as a drying agent to purify essential oils.

374
Q

What is the primary constituent of volatile oil that forms p-cymene upon hydrogenation?

A

Citral.

375
Q

What apparatus is commonly used for the extraction of volatile oils?

A

Soxhlet apparatus.

376
Q

What is a significant advantage of using the Soxhlet extraction method?

A

It is a fast way and preserves quality at controlled temperatures.

377
Q

What is the disadvantage of the Soxhlet extraction method?

A

It is expensive.

378
Q

What is enfleurage used for?

A

To obtain small amounts of volatile oil from plant parts like flower petals.

379
Q

What is the resulting product called when fatty products are impregnated with floral odor?

A

Pomade.

380
Q

What is the chief solvent used in percolation with volatile solvents?

A

Highly purified petroleum benzene.

381
Q

What is the process of obtaining oils by heating without access to air called?

A

Destructive distillation.

382
Q

What are the three broad classes of volatile oils?

A

Terpenoids, Phenylpropanoids, and Aromatic Compounds.

383
Q

What pathway do terpenoids form through?

A

The acetate-mevalonate acid pathway.

384
Q

What is the precursor for phenylpropanoids?

A

Cinnamic acid.

385
Q

What are the two types of monoterpenes based on their structure?

A

Acyclic and cyclic monoterpenes.

386
Q

What is the formula for Monoterpenes?

A

C10H16.

387
Q

What is Limonene known for?

A

It is the most widely distributed monoterpene and can be topically applied as treatment for breast cancer.

388
Q

What is Quinghaosu derived from?

A

Artemisia annua, and it is a common source for antimalarial agents.

389
Q

What is the formula for Sesquiterpenes?

A

C15H24.

390
Q

What is the primary use of Neem (Azadirachta indica)?

A

It is used as an insect repellent.

391
Q

What is the hydrocarbon portion of volatile oils called?

A

Eleoptene.

392
Q

What is the oxidized hydrocarbon portion of volatile oils called?

A

Stearoptene.

393
Q

What is Turpentine oil derived from?

A

Volatile oil from Pinus palustris.

394
Q

What is the primary use of Juniperus communis?

A

It is used as a diuretic and antiseptic.

395
Q

What is the precursor of guaifenesin?

A

Guaiacol.

396
Q

What is the scientific name of Peppermint Oil?

A

Mentha piperita.

397
Q

What is the main constituent of Peppermint Oil?

A

Menthol.

398
Q

What are the uses of Peppermint Oil?

A

Carminative, counterirritant, flavor in chewing gums.

399
Q

What is the scientific name of Coriander Oil?

A

Coriandrium sativum.

400
Q

What is the main constituent of Coriander Oil?

A

Linalool.

401
Q

What is the scientific name of Cardamom Oil?

A

Elettaria cardamomum.

402
Q

What is the main constituent of Cardamom Oil?

A

Cineol.

403
Q

What is the scientific name of Rose Oil?

A

Rosa gallica.

404
Q

What are the main constituents of Rose Oil?

A

Geraniol, nerol, citronellol.

405
Q

What is the scientific name of Neroli Oil?

A

Citrus aurantium.

406
Q

What is the main constituent of Neroli Oil?

A

Linalool.

407
Q

What is the scientific name of Juniper Oil?

A

Juniper communis.

408
Q

What are the main constituents of Juniper Oil?

A

ɲ-pinene, b-pinene.

409
Q

What is the scientific name of Pine Oil?

A

Pinus palustris.

410
Q

What is the main constituent of Pine Oil?

A

ɲ-terpineol.

411
Q

What is the scientific name of Cinnamon Oil?

A

Cinnamomum loureirii, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamomum cassia.

412
Q

What is the main constituent of Cinnamon Oil?

A

Cinnamaldehyde.

413
Q

What is the scientific name of Lemon Oil?

A

Citrus limon.

414
Q

What is the main constituent of Lemon Oil?

A

Citral.

415
Q

What does a Terebinthinate odor indicate?

A

Volatile oils that have undergone resinification.

416
Q

What happens to volatile oils with high terpenes?

A

They easily resinify.

417
Q

What are terpeneless volatile oils?

A

Oils with 95% of terpenes removed, no deterioration, no odor.

418
Q

What is the scientific name for Orange Oil?

A

Citrus sinensis.

419
Q

What are the main constituents of Citronella Oil?

A

Citronellal and citral.

420
Q

What is the use of Hamamelis Water?

A

It is used as an astringent in hemorrhoid preparations.

421
Q

What is the scientific name for Camphor?

A

Cinnamomum camphora.

422
Q

What is the optical rotation of Spearmint?

A

+41 or +43 (dextrorotary).

423
Q

What is the primary use of Wormwood Oil?

A

Promotes appetite and strengthens treatment of colds and influenza.

424
Q

What is the main constituent of Thyme Oil?

A

Thymol.

425
Q

What is Eugenol commonly used for?

A

As a dental analgesic and in toothache drops.

426
Q

What is the scientific name for Clove Oil?

A

Eugenia caryophyllus.

427
Q

What is the precursor to the antitussive guaifenesin?

A

Guaiacol from Creosote.

428
Q

What is the scientific name of Juniper Tar / Cade Oil?

A

Juniper oxycedrus.

429
Q

What is a primary constituent of Pine Tar?

A

Phenol and creosol.

430
Q

What are the scientific names of Oregano?

A

Origanum onites (pot marjoram) and Origanum vulgare (wild marjoram).

431
Q

What are the uses of Oregano?

A

Antitussive and expectorant.

432
Q

What is the primary constituent of Nutmeg Oil?

A

Primarily a-pinene, b-pinene, sabinene, myristicin, and elemicin.

433
Q

What is the use of Fennel Oil?

A

Purgative.

434
Q

What is the scientific name of Sweet Flag?

A

Acorus calamus.

435
Q

What is a toxic constituent found in Sassafras?

A

Safrole.

436
Q

What is the primary use of Eucalyptus Oil?

A

Flavor, antiseptic, diaphoretic, expectorant.

437
Q

What is the scientific name of the allied drug Mindanao gum?

A

Eucalyptus deglupta.

438
Q

What is the scientific name of Wintergreen?

A

Gaultheria procumbens.

439
Q

What is the main constituent of Wintergreen oil?

A

Methyl salicylate.

440
Q

What are the uses of Wintergreen oil?

A

Antirheumatic, antiseptic, flavor.

441
Q

What is the scientific name of Lavender oil?

A

Lavandula angustifolia.

442
Q

What is the main constituent of Lavender oil?

A

Linalyl acetate.

443
Q

What is the use of Lavender oil?

A

Relaxing oil for aromatherapy (massage, headache).

444
Q

What is the scientific name of Pine Needle oil?

A

Pinus mugo.

445
Q

What is the main constituent of Mustard oil?

A

Allyl isothiocyanate.

446
Q

What is the use of Rosemary oil?

A

Antibacterial, carminative, spasmolytic

447
Q

What are the scientific names of alliaceous plants?

A

Garlic (Allium sativum), Onion (Allium cepa), Leeks (Allium odorum).

448
Q

What is the active ingredient found in Teaberry?

A

Methyl salicylate.

449
Q

Which volatile oil is used as an analgesic agent?

A

Methyl salicylate.

450
Q

Which volatile oil has amphetamine-like effects?

A

Eugenol.

451
Q

Which of the following serves as the source of tannin and volatile oils?

A

Hammamelis.

452
Q

What are resins formed from?

A

The oxidation of volatile oils.

453
Q

What is the physical state of resins?

A

Amorphous products with a complex nature, hard, transparent or translucent, and they soften and melt when heated.

454
Q

What are the main components of oleoresins?

A

Both volatile oil and resin.

455
Q

What are resin acids used for?

A

In soaps and varnishes.

456
Q

What is a characteristic of resenes?

A

They are neutral and do not form salts.

457
Q

What is an example of a glycoresin?

A

Jalap (Exogonium purga).

458
Q

What is the scientific name for Podophyllum?

A

Podophyllum peltatum.

459
Q

What is the primary use of Cannabis sativa?

A

As a euphoric and for controlling chemotherapy-induced nausea.

460
Q

What is the main active component in Cannabis?

A

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol).

461
Q

What is the use of Mastic?

A

Chewed as a breath sweetener and used in dental varnish.

462
Q

What is the scientific name of Kava?

A

Piper methysticum.

463
Q

What are the constituents of Kava?

A

Yangonin, kawain, methysticin.

464
Q

What is the primary use of Kava?

A

Centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxants, antipyretic, anesthetic.

465
Q

What is the scientific name of Turpentine?

A

Pinus palustris.

466
Q

What are the constituents of Ginger?

A

Bisabolene, zingiberene, zingiberol, zingerone, shogaol, gingerol.

467
Q

What is the primary use of Copaiba?

A

Genitourinary antiseptic, diuretic.

468
Q

What is the scientific name of Capsicum?

A

Capsicum frutescens and Capsicum annum.

469
Q

What is the main constituent of Capsicum?

A

Capsaicin.

470
Q

What is the scientific name of Myrrh?

A

Commiphora molmol.

471
Q

What are the constituents of Myrrh?

A

D, E, and ɶ-commiphoric acids, protocatechuic acids.

472
Q

What is the primary use of Benzoin?

A

Antiseptic, stimulant, expectorant.

473
Q

What is the scientific name of Garcinia used for Gamboge?

A

Garcinia hanburyi.

474
Q

What is the primary use of Tolu Balsam?

A

Pharmaceutical aid for CBT, expectorant, flavor.

475
Q

What compound is used in perfumery due to its vanilla-like odor?

A

Coniferyl benzoate.

476
Q

What is Compound Benzoin Tincture used for?

A

As a topical protectant.

477
Q

Which components are used to prepare Compound Benzoin Tincture?

A

Storax, Tolu Balsam, Aloe, and Benzoin.

478
Q

What is the current source of benzoic acid?

A

Synthetic ally produced.

479
Q

What are the uses of benzoic acid?

A

Antifungal, preservative of food, and pharmaceutical preparations.

480
Q

What differentiates Siamese Benzoin from Sumatra Benzoin?

A

Siamese has a warming effect and a vanilla-like odor, while Sumatra has a faint odor of benzaldehyde.

481
Q

What color change occurs with Ferric Chloride when testing Siamese Benzoin?

A

Green color.

482
Q

Which of the following is NOT a resin: Rosin, Eriodictyon, Cannabis, or Turpentine?

A

Eriodictyon.

483
Q

Which of the following is NOT a balsam: Peru Balsam, Balsam of Copaiba, Tolu Balsam, or Storax?

A

Balsam of Copaiba.

484
Q

What families are associated with rubber formation?

A

Moraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Asteraceae.

485
Q

What is latex composed of?

A

Microscopic particles suspended in a liquid serum contained in specialized latex cells.

486
Q

What determines the milky character of latex?

A

The presence of a refractive index greatly different from that of the dispersion medium.

487
Q

Which alkaloid is found in the latex of the Papaveraceae?

A

Alkaloids.

488
Q

What is the scientific name of the Indian Rubber tree?

A

Ficus elastica.

489
Q

What is the composition of rubber?

A

Linear chains of about 1500 to 60,000 C5 isoprenoid units linked by cis double bonds.

490
Q

What is gutta percha derived from?

A

Purified, coagulated latex from trees of the genera Palaquium and Payena.

491
Q

How does gutta percha differ from rubber?

A

It is almost incapable of vulcanization and becomes plastic when heated to about 45-60 °C.

492
Q

What is chicle and where is it obtained from?

A

A polyisoprenoid obtained from Manilkara zapota (Sapotaceae), used as the base for original chewing gum.

493
Q

What is balata and its source?

A

Dried latex obtained from Mimusops balata (Sapotaceae), used in bubble gum manufacture.

494
Q

What are the constituents of Indian Rubber?

A

Caoutchouc and cerotic acid.

495
Q

What is the use of chico/sapodilla?

A

Used for diarrhea and fever.

496
Q

What are alkaloids?

A

Organic nitrogenous compounds with varied pharmacologic actions.

497
Q

What is the pH and taste characteristic of alkaloids?

A

Basic pH and bitter taste.

498
Q

What is the physical state of most alkaloids?

A

Usually crystalline or amorphous solids.

499
Q

Which alkaloids are exceptions and exist as liquids?

A

Coniine, Nicotine, Sparteine, and Arecoline (CNSA).

500
Q

What color is berberine, and what is its significance?

A

Berberine is yellow and is rich in the plant Makabuhay.

501
Q

What is required for a compound to be classified as a true alkaloid?

A

It should be derived from amino acids.

502
Q

What are the four types of amines found in alkaloids?

A

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary amines.

503
Q

What are alkaloidal bases known as?

A

Free alkaloids.

504
Q

How can alkaloids be made soluble in water?

A

By converting them into salts.

505
Q

What is an example of an alkaloidal salt?

A

Quinine sulfate.

506
Q

Who discovered narcotine and in what year?

A

Derosne discovered narcotine in 1803.

507
Q

What is the most important opium alkaloid?

A

Morphine.

508
Q

Which alkaloids were discovered by Pelletier and Caventou?

A

Brucine, emetine, strychnine, piperine, quinine, caffeine, colchicine, and coniine.

509
Q

What is the significance of Schiff’s discovery?

A

He established the structure of coniine, the first alkaloid with an established structure.

510
Q

What are true alkaloids?

A

Compounds with nitrogen atoms enclosed within a ring system.

511
Q

What are pseudoalkaloids?

A

Alkaloids that are not derived from amino acids.

512
Q

What is the role of tannic acid in relation to alkaloids?

A

It acts as a universal antidote by precipitating alkaloids and inhibiting their absorption in the stomach.

513
Q

What is the classification of alkaloids based on their structure?

A

They can be classified as true alkaloids, pseudoalkaloids, and protoalkaloids.

514
Q

What is the Shikimic Acid Pathway?

A

A metabolic pathway that leads to the synthesis of various compounds including gallic acid and hydrolyzable tannins.

515
Q

What is the positive result for the Marquis test?

A

Blue color indicates the presence of codeine.

516
Q

What are the products of the chorismate pathway?

A

Anthraquinone, Phenol, Alcohol.

517
Q

What are the products of the prephenate pathway?

A

Aldehyde, Lactone, Flavonoid.

518
Q

What is catechin classified as?

A

Flavan-3-ol.

519
Q

What type of tannins are condensed/non-hydrolyzable?

A

NHT (Non-Hydrolyzable Tannins).

520
Q

What is the significance of phenylalanine in newborn screening?

A

It is tested for the presence of phenyl hydroxylase, which is crucial for the production of tyrosine and affects CNS development.

521
Q

What condition is caused by a lack of phenyl hydroxylase?

A

Phenylketonuria, which can lead to mental retardation.

522
Q

What are the main types of alkaloidal rings mentioned?

A

Pyridine, Piperidine, Pyrrolidine, Quinoline, Isoquinoline, Imidazole, Indole, Purine, Tropane.

523
Q

What is nicotine derived from?

A

Pyrrolidone.

524
Q

What is the scientific name for nicotine?

A

Nicotiana tabacum.

525
Q

What is the primary use of nicotine?

A

As a smoking deterrent and CNS stimulant.

526
Q

What is the scientific name of Areca Nut?

A

Areca catechu.

527
Q

What is the main constituent of Areca Nut?

A

Arecoline.

528
Q

What are the uses of Areca Nut?

A

Masticatory (betel chewing), taenicide, anthelmintic (veterinary).

529
Q

What is the scientific name of Lobelia?

A

Lobelia inflata.

530
Q

What is the main constituent of Lobelia?

A

Lobeline.

531
Q

What is a significant use of Lobelia?

A

Smoking deterrent.

532
Q

What is the scientific name of Poison Hemlock?

A

Conium maculatum.

533
Q

What is the main constituent of Poison Hemlock?

A

Coniine.

534
Q

What historical use did Poison Hemlock have?

A

Used by Greeks for executions, including Socrates.

535
Q

What is the scientific name of Duboisia?

A

Duboisia myoporoides.

536
Q

What alkaloids are primarily sourced from Duboisia?

A

Atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine.

537
Q

What is the scientific name of Belladonna?

A

Atropa belladonna.

538
Q

What are the main constituents of Belladonna?

A

Hyoscyamine and atropine.

539
Q

What is a primary use of Belladonna?

A

Anticholinergic effects (mydriatic, antidiarrheal).

540
Q

What is the scientific name of Jimson Weed?

A

Datura stramonium.

541
Q

What are the constituents of Jimson Weed?

A

Hyoscyamine and scopolamine.

542
Q

What is the use of Jimson Weed?

A

Anticholinergic, vapor from burnt weed relieves asthma.

543
Q

What is the scientific name of Mandragora?

A

Mandragora officinarum.

544
Q

What are the constituents of Mandragora?

A

Hyoscyamine, scopolamine, mandragorine.

545
Q

What are the aromatic portions of belladonna alkaloids?

A

Tropic acid.

546
Q

What is the primary use of atropine?

A

For eye examinations as a mydriatic.

547
Q

What is the scientific name of coca?

A

Erythroxylum coca.

548
Q

What is the primary constituent of coca?

A

Cocaine.

549
Q

What is the mechanism of action of cocaine?

A

Blocks reuptake of dopamine back to presynaptic neurons.

550
Q

What are the constituents of cinchona?

A

Quinine and quinidine.

551
Q

What condition does quinine primarily treat?

A

Malaria.

552
Q

What is cinchonism?

A

Loss of hearing, ringing in the ears, impaired sight due to quinine.

553
Q

What is the effect of quinine on Plasmodium?

A

It prevents the conversion of heme to hemozoin, leading to the death of Plasmodium.

554
Q

What is the use of quinidine?

A

For prophylaxis of cardiac arrhythmias and treatment of AFib.

555
Q

What is the scientific name of the Happy Tree?

A

Camptotheca acuminata.

556
Q

What is the main constituent of Camptotheca acuminata?

A

Camptothecin (CPT).

557
Q

How does camptothecin act in malignant cells?

A

It acts as a topoisomerase inhibitor.

558
Q

What types of cancer are treated with camptothecin derivatives?

A

Colon and lung cancer.

559
Q

What are the two classes of isoquinoline alkaloids mentioned?

A

Benzylisoquinoline and Tetrahydroisoquinoline.

560
Q

What is the scientific name of Ipecac?

A

Cephaelis ipecacuanha.

561
Q

What are the main constituents of Ipecac?

A

Cephaeline and emetine.

562
Q

What is the use of Ipecac?

A

As a local emetic and in poison antidote kits.

563
Q

What is the scientific name of Goldenseal?

A

Hydrastis canadensis.

564
Q

What are the constituents of Goldenseal?

A

Hydrastine, berberine, and canadine.

565
Q

What is the use of Goldenseal?

A

As an astringent in inflammation of mucous membranes.

566
Q

What is the scientific name of Blood Root?

A

Sanguinaria canadensis.

567
Q

Which family does Blood Root belong to?

A

Papaveraceae.

568
Q

What are the main constituents of Blood Root?

A

Sanguinarine, chelerythrine, protopine.

569
Q

What is Tubocurarine derived from?

A

Strychnos castelnaei.

570
Q

What type of muscle relaxant is Tubocurarine?

A

Nondepolarizing skeletal muscle relaxant.

571
Q

What is the mechanism of action (MOA) of Tubocurarine?

A

Blocks nerve impulses to skeletal muscles, causing paralysis.

572
Q

What is the primary alkaloid found in opium?

A

Morphine.

573
Q

What are the uses of opium?

A

CNS stimulant, depressant, narcotic analgesic, hypnotic.

574
Q

What is the significance of meconic acid in opium?

A

It indicates the presence of opium and serves as a chemotaxonomic marker for Papaveraceae.

575
Q

What are some examples of indole alkaloids?

A

Ergotamine, physostigmine, reserpine, strychnine.

576
Q

What is the effect of morphine?

A

Narcotic analgesic and hypnotic.

577
Q

What is the relationship between codeine and morphine?

A

Codeine is a less potent derivative of morphine, used as an antitussive.

578
Q

What is the effect of heroin compared to morphine?

A

Heroin has more pronounced effects and is habit-forming.

579
Q

What is the role of apomorphine?

A

It acts as a central emetic for poisonings.

580
Q

What is the scientific name of Indian Snakeroot?

A

Rauvolfia serpentina.

581
Q

What is the primary use of Reserpine?

A

Hypotensive (antihypertensive), sedative, tranquilizer.

582
Q

What is the mechanism of action (MOA) of Reserpine?

A

Depletion of norepinephrine by inhibiting storage in postganglionic adrenergic endings.

583
Q

What is the scientific name of Periwinkle?

A

Catharanthus roseus.

584
Q

What are the main constituents of Periwinkle?

A

Vincristine and vinblastine.

585
Q

What is the MOA of vincristine and vinblastine?

A

Arrest cell division at metaphase, antimitotic.

586
Q

What is the scientific name of Nux Vomica?

A

Strychnos nux vomica.

587
Q

What are the main constituents of Nux Vomica?

A

Strychnine and Brucine.

588
Q

What is the primary use of Physostigma venenosum?

A

For treatment of glaucoma and myasthenia gravis.

589
Q

What is the MOA of Physostigmine?

A

Anticholinesterase, enhances the effect of acetylcholine.

590
Q

What is the scientific name of Ergot?

A

Claviceps purpurea.

591
Q

What condition can ergotism cause?

A

Gangrene due to vasoconstrictive effects.

592
Q

What is the MOA of ergotamine?

A

Constricts blood vessels in the brain, lowering intracranial pressure.

593
Q

What is the scientific name of Jaborandi?

A

Pilocarpus jaborandi.

594
Q

What is the primary use of Pilocarpine?

A

Muscarinic agonist for treatment of glaucoma.

595
Q

What are the two groups of steroidal alkaloids classified by carbon number?

A

C27 group and C21 group.

596
Q

What is the primary use of Hellebore?

A

Used as an insecticide.

597
Q

What are alkaloidal amines also known as?

A

Protoalkaloids.

598
Q

What is a key characteristic of protoalkaloids?

A

They do not have nitrogen as part of their heterocyclic ring system but are derived from amino acids.

599
Q

From which amino acid are many protoalkaloids derived?

A

Phenylalanine.

600
Q

What are some properties of protoalkaloids?

A

Antibacterial, antimalarial, and potential genotoxic properties.

601
Q

What is the scientific name of Ma Huang?

A

Ephedra sinica.

602
Q

What is ephedrine used for?

A

To combat hypotensive states, nasal congestion, asthma, and allergic conditions.

603
Q

What tragic event is associated with ephedrine?

A

It caused hemorrhagic stroke in female patients over 40 years old.

604
Q

What is the scientific name of Autumn Crocus?

A

Colchicum autumnale.

605
Q

What is colchicine primarily used for?

A

As a first-line treatment for acute gout.

606
Q

What is the scientific name of Khat?

A

Catha edulis.

607
Q

What effect does cathinone have?

A

It has an indirect adrenergic effect, alleviating hunger and fatigue.

608
Q

What is the scientific name of Peyote?

A

Lophophora williamsii.

609
Q

What is mescaline known for?

A

Being the first psychotomimetic, hallucinogen, and euphoric substance.

610
Q

What are purine bases also known as?

A

Pseudoalkaloids.

611
Q

What is a key pharmacological effect of methylxanthines?

A

They are potent bronchodilators and stimulants due to increased cAMP via PDE inhibition.

612
Q

What is caffeine’s role in beverages?

A

It is a central stimulant and diuretic, commonly found in carbonated beverages.

613
Q

What is the scientific name of Cola nuts?

A

Cola nitida.

614
Q

What is the scientific name of the coffee bean?

A

Coffea arabica.

615
Q

What is the primary constituent of coffee?

A

Caffeine.

616
Q

What is the caffeine content in decaffeinized coffee?

A

Up to 0.08%.

617
Q

What is the scientific name of guarana?

A

Paullinia cupana.

618
Q

How does the caffeine content of guarana compare to coffee?

A

It has twice as much caffeine as coffee seeds.

619
Q

What is the scientific name of mate or Paraguay tea?

A

Ilex paraguariensis.

620
Q

What are the uses of mate?

A

Laxative, purgative, diaphoretic, diuretic.

621
Q

What is the scientific name of tea?

A

Camelia sinensis.

622
Q

What are the constituents of tea?

A

Caffeine, theobromine, theophylline.

623
Q

What is the effective dose of theophylline for asthma relief?

A

10 mg.

624
Q

What is the scientific name of cocoa?

A

Theobroma cacao.

625
Q

What is the primary constituent of cocoa?

A

Theobromine.

626
Q

What is the scientific name of Caucasian snowdrop?

A

Galanthus woronowii.

627
Q

What is galantamine used for?

A

Cholinesterase inhibitor.

628
Q

What is the scientific name of monkshood?

A

Aconitum napellus.

629
Q

What can aconitine induce?

A

Cholinergic excess (nausea, diarrhea, hypotension, etc.).

630
Q

What is the antidote for organophosphate poisoning?

A

Atropine (physiologic), Pralidoxime (2-PAM

631
Q

What is the chemical name for methylmorphine?

A

Codeine.

632
Q

What is a skeletal muscle relaxant without deep anesthesia?

A

Tubocurarine.

633
Q

Which of the following is not an isoquinoline alkaloid?

A

Catharanthus.

634
Q

What is colchicine used for?

A

As an antimitotic agent.

635
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Highly selective organic catalysts produced by living organisms.

636
Q

How do enzymes exert their catalytic reactions?

A

By lowering the energy of activation (Ea) of a reaction.

637
Q

What is the optimal temperature range for enzyme activity?

A

Between 35°C and 40°C.

638
Q

What happens to enzymes at temperatures above 65°C?

A

They become denatured.

639
Q

What are the two main classifications of enzymes based on the type of reaction catalyzed?

A

Oxidoreductases and Transferases.

640
Q

What do hydrolases do?

A

Cleave molecules through hydrolysis.

641
Q

What is the function of lipase?

A

Converts fats into glycerin and fatty acids.

642
Q

What is the role of pepsin?

A

Acts in gastric juice to digest proteins into proteoses and peptones.

643
Q

What is the function of trypsin?

A

Converts proteoses and peptones into polypeptides and amino acids in the small intestine.

644
Q

What does invertase do?

A

Converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.

645
Q

What is papain and where is it found?

A

Papain, known as ‘vegetable pepsin’, is found in unripe fruit of Carica papaya.

646
Q

What are the uses of papain?

A

1) Meat tenderizer, digestant 2) Relieves episiotomy 3) Ingredient in cleansing solutions for contact lenses.

647
Q

What is the function of peroxidase?

A

Peroxidase catalyzes oxidation reactions and causes discoloration of bruised fruits.

648
Q

What does thrombin do?

A

Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin, forming a clot.

649
Q

What is pancreatin and its uses?

A

Pancreatin contains lipase, amylase, and protease

650
Q

What is the difference between pancreatin and pancrelipase?

A

Pancrelipase is a more concentrated form of pancreatin with increased lipase, amylase, and protease activity.

651
Q

What is chymopapain used for?

A

Chymopapain is used for the treatment of herniated lumbar intervertebral discs and relieves lower back pains.

652
Q

What are bromelains and their uses?

A

Bromelains are protein-digesting, milk-clotting enzymes from pineapple, used for anti-inflammatory purposes and to increase tissue repair.

653
Q

What is the function of hyaluronidase?

A

Hyaluronidase hydrolyzes hyaluronic acid, promoting diffusion and hastening absorption.

654
Q

What is the use of streptokinase?

A

Streptokinase is used for the treatment of pulmonary embolism and thrombosis.

655
Q

What is L-asparaginase and its use?

A

L-asparaginase is used to induce remissions in acute leukemia by degrading L-asparagine.

656
Q

What is the use of levodopa?

A

Levodopa is used to relieve symptoms of parkinsonism.

657
Q

What is the function of protamine sulfate?

A

Protamine sulfate neutralizes heparin.

658
Q

What is the role of heparin?

A

Heparin acts as an anticoagulant, prolonging clotting time.

659
Q

What are the uses of penicillamine?

A

Penicillamine is used as a metal chelating agent for Wilson’s disease and in rheumatoid arthritis.

660
Q

What is gelatin and its uses?

A

Gelatin is formed from the partial hydrolysis of collagen and is used as an encapsulating agent and in topical protectants.

COURSE AUDIT 1 MODULE 2 (8 decks)

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