PCOG Flashcards
1
Q
What is pharmacognosy?
A
The study of drugs of biologic origin, including their properties and uses.
2
Q
What are crude drugs?
A
Natural substances that have only undergone the processes of collection and drying.
3
Q
What is the significance of the Papyrus Ebers?
A
It is an ancient Egyptian document containing 600-700 citations of drugs from plants or animals, discovered in 1550 BC.
4
Q
Who is known as the Father of Pharmacology?
A
Pedanios Dioscorides.
5
Q
What does molecular pharmacognosy involve?
A
Manipulation of genes, proteins, and enzymes using biotechnology to influence the synthesis of active ingredients.
6
Q
What is ecopharmacognosy?
A
The practice of increasing the sustainability of natural sources to avoid depletion, involving proper collection and cultivation.
7
Q
What is the purpose of drying crude drugs?
A
To remove moisture, protect from microbial damage, and fix the constituents.
8
Q
What is the term ‘menstruum’ in pharmacognosy?
A
A solvent or liquid mixture that dissolves the chief constituents of a drug.
9
Q
What is the difference between indigenous and naturalized plants?
A
Indigenous plants grow in their native regions, while naturalized plants grow in foreign lands.
10
Q
What is garbling in the preparation of crude drugs?
A
The final step involving the physical or mechanical removal of extraneous matter from the crude drug.
11
Q
What is the purpose of packaging, storing, and preservation of crude drugs?
A
To protect from environmental conditions and insect attacks, and for marketability.
12
Q
What is the simplest method to preserve crude drugs from insect attacks?
A
Exposure to 65° C.
13
Q
What are the types of crude extracts mentioned?
A
Pilular, Syrupy, and Powdered.
14
Q
What is the maceration method of extraction?
A
Submerging the solute in a suitable solvent for 48-72 hours.
15
Q
What is the purpose of percolation in extraction?
A
To allow slow and intimate extraction using filtration and gravity.
16
Q
What does organoleptic evaluation involve?
A
Macroscopic evaluation by means of the senses (odor, color, taste, etc.).
17
Q
What is the significance of biological assays in drug evaluation?
A
To determine pharmacologic activity using living organisms.
18
Q
What is the best method for determining the official potency of drugs?
A
Chemical assays, including titrimetric and quantitative analyses.
19
Q
How are drugs classified morphologically?
A
According to the part of the plant used.
20
Q
What does taxonomic classification consider?
A
Phylogeny, the natural relationship among plants and animals.
21
Q
What family does guava belong to?
A
Myrtaceae.
22
Q
Which plant is known for its antihypertensive properties?
A
Garlic (Allium sativum).
23
Q
What is the primary use of ampalaya?
A
As an anti-diabetes mellitus supplement.
24
Q
What are secondary metabolites?
A
Chemical entities in crude drugs responsible for therapeutic properties.
25
What is drug biosynthesis?
The process of producing secondary metabolites used as drugs.
26
What does adulteration refer to?
The debasement or spoilage of an article, making it substandard.
27
What is the significance of gibberellic acid (GA) in pharmacognosy?
It increases cardiac glycoside formation in the digitalis plant.
28
Which plant is used as an anti-gout remedy?
Pansit-pansitan (Peperomia pellucida).
29
What is the role of heredity in the production of secondary metabolites?
It influences the genes and variety of the plant, affecting metabolite concentration.
30
What is the primary function of the active constituents in drugs?
They are pharmacologically or pharmaceutically active substances.
31
What are the two types of functional groups in carbohydrates?
Aldehyde and ketone.
32
What is the general formula for carbohydrates?
C_n(H_2O)_n.
33
What is the first product of photosynthesis?
Glucose.
34
What are the two processes involved in the conversion of carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis?
Reduction and oxidation.
35
How are carbohydrates classified?
Into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
36
What are homoglycans?
Polysaccharides made of only one type of sugar, such as starch and cellulose.
37
What are heteroglycans?
Polysaccharides made of different types of sugars, such as gums and mucilage.
38
What is the most important monosaccharide in plants?
Hexoses.
39
What distinguishes aldoses from ketoses?
Aldoses contain an aldehyde group, while ketoses contain a ketone group.
40
What is the simplest natural aldose?
Glyceraldehyde.
41
What is the cyclic configuration of glucose called?
Haworth projection.
42
What is an anomeric carbon?
A carbon that has two oxygens and determines the alpha or beta configuration.
43
How many isomers can glucose have based on its chiral carbons?
16 isomers (2^4).
44
What is a diastereomer?
Compounds that differ in 2 or more chiral carbons, e.g., arabinose and xylose (C2, C3).
45
What is an epimer?
Compounds that differ in only 1 chiral carbon, e.g., arabinose and ribose (C2), glucose and mannose (C2).
46
What are enantiomers?
Mirror images of each other where all chiral carbons are switched, e.g., rhamnose and mannose.
47
What type of sugar is glucose?
An aldohexose with an aldehyde group in C1 and a reducing sugar.
48
What is the only utilizable sugar in the blood?
Glucose.
49
What is the natural source of glucose?
Grapes.
50
What is fructose commonly known as?
Fruit sugar or levulose.
51
What is the sweetest monosaccharide?
Fructose.
52
What is galactose and where is it found?
An aldohexose found in milk (as lactose) and neuronal fibers (as galactoceramides).
53
What condition affects the body's ability to convert galactose to glucose?
Galactosemia.
54
What are natural sources of xylose (wood sugar)?
Corn cobs, straws, heartwood of deciduous trees, and other materials soaked in dilute acids to hydrolyze xylan.
55
What is the primary use of xylose?
As a diagnostic aid for intestinal malabsorption.
56
What are disaccharides composed of?
Two monosaccharide units.
57
How are disaccharides formed?
Via dehydration synthesis, forming ether glycosidic bonds.
58
What is sucrose composed of?
Glucose and fructose, linked by a β-1,2 glycosidic bond.
59
What is a characteristic of sucrose?
It is a non-reducing sugar.
60
What are the natural sources of sucrose?
Sugar cane, sugar beet, and sugar maple.
61
What is trehalose and where is it found?
A disaccharide composed of glucose + glucose, found in brown seaweed and fungi.
62
What is maltose commonly known as?
Malt sugar or beer sugar.
63
What is the primary use of maltose?
As a component in beers.
64
What is lactose derived from?
Fresh cow's milk and the crystallization of whey, a by-product of cheese production.
65
What is the glycosidic bond in lactose?
α-1,4 glycosidic bond between glucose and galactose.
66
What causes lactose intolerance?
Absence of the enzyme lactase or β-galactosidase.
67
What is condensed milk?
Partially evaporated milk.
68
What is malted milk?
Milk evaporated with malt extract from barley.
69
What is Kumyss?
An alcoholic beverage made from fermented mare's milk, originally made by nomads of Central Asia.
70
What is lactulose and its primary use?
A synthetic sugar used as a laxative (e.g., Duphalac®).
71
How does lactulose affect blood ammonia concentration?
It decreases blood ammonia concentration in portal-systemic encephalopathy by trapping ammonia as NH4+.
72
What are tautomers?
Constitutional isomers of organic compounds that readily interconvert in a rapid equilibrium.
73
What is the most common tautomeric relation in organic chemistry?
The keto-enol pair.
74
What are oligosaccharides?
Carbohydrates that have 3-10 sugar units.
75
What is maltotriose composed of?
Three glucose units.
76
What are dextrins?
Products of partial hydrolysis of starch, formed by amylase and glucosidase.
77
What is the role of α-glucosidase inhibitors?
They inhibit the conversion of limiting dextrins to glucose, preventing post-prandial increases in glucose levels.
78
What is raffinose composed of?
Glucose, galactose, and fructose.
79
What are polysaccharides?
Carbohydrates that consist of more than 10 sugar units, used for storage or structure.
80
What is the primary storage polysaccharide in plants?
Starch.
81
What is the primary storage polysaccharide in animals?
Glycogen.
82
What are homoglycans made up of?
One type of sugar only.
83
What is the temporary storage form of photosynthetic products in plants?
Starch (glucosan).
84
Name two natural sources of starch.
Corn grain (Zea mays) and potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum).
85
What are the two structurally different polysaccharides that make up starch?
Amylose and amylopectin.
86
What is the iodine test result for amylose?
Deep blue.
87
What is the primary use of pregelatinized starch?
As a tablet excipient.
88
What is the end product of α-amylases?
A mixture of glucose, maltose, and amylopectin.
89
What is glycogen's role in animals?
Storage form of carbohydrates.
90
How frequently does glycogen branch compared to starch?
Every 10 units, more highly branched than starch.
91
What is the iodine test result for glycogen?
Wine red.
92
What is inulin primarily composed of?
A polymer of fructose.
93
What is one use of inulin?
To measure renal glomerular filtration.
94
What type of bonds link glucan in dextran?
ɲ - (1 o 6) bonds with some branching due to ɲ - (1 o 3).
95
What enzyme is responsible for converting sucrose to dextran?
Dextran sucrase/transglycosylase.
96
What is a common use of dextran?
As a plasma expander at 10%.
97
What is cellulose primarily responsible for in plant cell walls?
Rigidity.
98
Why can't mammals digest cellulose?
They lack cellulase.
99
What is the natural source of cellulose?
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum).
100
What is methylcellulose used for?
As a bulk laxative and suspending agent.
101
What is the function of ethylcellulose?
As a tablet binder and film coat.
102
What is chitin a homopolymer of?
N-acetyl-ɴ-D-glucosamine.
103
What are heteroglycans made of?
Different types of sugar.
104
What are gums and mucilage classified as?
Natural plant hydrocolloids.
105
What is the primary function of gums in plants?
As a protective agent after injury.
106
What are the components of gum tragacanth?
Bassorin (60-70%) and tragacanthin (30-40%).
107
What is the best grade of tragacanthin and bassorin for use as a suspending agent?
Low tragacanthin and high bassorin.
108
What is the primary use of Acacia gum?
As a suspending agent (35%).
109
What is the exudate from Acacia senegal known as?
Gum arabic.
110
What type of gum is Karaya gum and what is its primary use?
It is an exudate from Sterculia urens, used as a bulk laxative.
111
What is the source of sodium alginate?
Brown seaweeds, specifically Macrocystis porifera.
112
What are the components of agar?
Agarose and agaropectin.
113
What is the primary use of carrageenan?
As a thickener and gelling agent.
114
What is the main property of xanthan gum?
It possesses pseudoplastic properties.
115
What is pectin derived from?
The inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits or from apple pomace.
116
What is the role of dextran in medical applications?
It is used as a plasma expander.
117
What is pectic acid?
An insoluble degradation product of overripe fruits.
118
What is chondroitin sulfate used for?
As a supplement for osteoarthritis to maintain elasticity of cartilage joints.
119
What is the role of hyaluronic acid?
It lubricates synovial fluid and is used in dermatology for anti-aging and anti-wrinkle treatments.
120
What is heparin and its primary function?
A natural anticoagulant that inhibits the action of thrombin.
121
What are sugar alcohols?
Reduction or hydrogenation products of sugars, such as sorbitol and mannitol.
122
What is the polyol pathway?
A metabolic pathway where glucose is converted to sorbitol by aldose reductase.
123
What can excess sorbitol lead to in diabetics?
Depletion of NADPH levels, lower antioxidant activity, and possible oxidative damage to cells.
124
What is the effect of NADPH in the body?
It activates glutathione and is involved in the pentose phosphate pathway.
125
What is the significance of chitin?
It is composed of N-acetylgalactosamine and comprises the shells of crustaceans.
126
What is the main cause of incompatibilities in cherry juice preparations?
Pectin.
127
What is the only plant acid that does not carbonize when heated?
Malic acid.
128
What is the use of malic acid in cherry juice?
Preparation of cherry syrup to mask the taste of sour drugs.
129
What are plant acids?
Aliphatic organic acids from plants with 2 to 6 carbon atoms and 2 or 3 carboxyl groups.
130
What is the ratio of citric acid to tartaric acid in effervescent tablet formulation?
1 part citric acid to 2 parts tartaric acid.
131
Which acid is a by-product of the wine industry?
Tartaric acid.
132
What is the oxidation product of ethylene glycol poisoning?
Oxalic acid (forms calcium oxalate crystals).
133
What is the precursor of aromatic compounds and amino acids?
Shikimic acid.
134
Which acid is known as the cheapest antioxidant but is very unstable?
Ascorbic acid.
135
What are glycosides?
Sugar ethers
136
What connects the sugar and non-sugar portions in glycosides?
A glycosidic bond.
137
What are the two important biosynthesis pathways for glycosides?
The mevalonate pathway and the shikimic acid pathway.
138
What is the role of UDP-sugar in glycoside formation?
It condenses with the aglycone to form the actual glycoside.
139
What does the shikimic acid pathway give rise to?
Aromatic amino acids and phenylpropanoids.
140
What are the products of chorismic acid?
Anthraquinone glycosides, phenols, and alcohols.
141
What type of glycosides does coumaric acid produce?
Lactone glycosides.
142
What do hydrolyzable tannins contain?
Gallic acid and ellagic acid.
143
What is the significance of the prephenic acid branch?
It can give rise to phenylpropanoids.
144
What does coumaric acid produce?
Chalcones, which produce flavonoids.
145
What are flavonoids required for?
The production of condensed tannins.
146
What is catechin?
A flavonoid that is the phenolic nucleus of condensed tannins.
147
Which acids are related to catechin?
Chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, and ellagic acid.
148
What is the role of HMG CoA reductase?
It is a target of statins to inhibit sterol production.
149
What does the Mevalonate pathway produce?
Hormones, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK).
150
What are anthraquinone glycosides used for?
As stimulant cathartics.
151
What is the mechanism of action (MOA) of anthraquinone glycosides?
They increase the tone of smooth muscle in the wall of large intestines and inhibit Cl ion channels.
152
What is the aglycone of anthraquinone glycosides?
Anthracene derivatives.
153
What are anthraquinone derivatives known for?
Orange-red colored compounds soluble in dilute alcohol and boiling/hot water.
154
What gives anthraquinone derivatives their solubility?
The hydroxyl group.
155
What color do anthraquinone derivatives give with a base like NH3 or NaOH?
Red, violet, or green.
156
What is the most reduced type of anthraquinone?
Anthranol.
157
What is the main constituent of Senna?
Sennoside.
158
What is the scientific name for Cascara Sagrada?
Rhamnus purshianus.
159
What are the main constituents of Cascara Sagrada?
Cascarosides A, B, C, and D.
160
What is the primary use of Cascara Sagrada?
As a cathartic for habitual constipation.
161
How should Cascara Sagrada be treated before use?
It should be aged for at least 1 year.
162
What is done to reduce the bitter taste of Cascara Sagrada?
Cured with MgO or alkaline earths.
163
What is the scientific name of Alder Buckthorn?
Rhamnus frangula.
164
What are the main constituents of Aloe?
Barbaloin and chrysophanic acid.
165
What is the primary use of Aloe vera gel?
Treatment of burns, abrasions, and skin irritations.
166
What is the scientific name for Chinese Rhubarb?
Rheum officinale, R. palmatum, R. raponticum.
167
What are the major constituents of Senna?
Sennosides A and B.
168
What is the use of Goa powder?
Keratolytic agent for psoriasis, trichophytosis, and eczema.
169
What is the main active compound in St. John's Wort?
Hyperforin.
170
What is the effect of Hyperforin?
Acts as a reuptake inhibitor and increases neurotransmitters.
171
What is Arbutin derived from?
Dried leaves of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.
172
What is the primary use of Bearberry?
Diuretic and weak urinary antiseptic.
173
What is the scientific name of Willow?
Salix purpurea and S. fragilis.
174
What is the primary constituent found in Willow?
Salicin.
175
What does salicin produce after hydrolysis with emulsin?
Saligenin/salicylic alcohol (aglycone).
176
What is the use of salicin?
Antirheumatic (like salicylic acid).
177
What is the scientific name of Poplar?
Populus tremuloides or Populus tremula.
178
What is the primary constituent found in Poplar?
Populin (benzoylsalicin).
179
What is the scientific name of Black Haw?
Viburnum prunifolium.
180
What are the uses of Black Haw?
Dysmenorrhea, bleeding, asthma.
181
What is the scientific name of Hops?
Humulus lupulus.
182
What is the primary constituent found in Hops?
Lupulin.
183
What is the scientific name of Kamala/Banato?
Mallotus philippinensis.
184
What is the use of Kamala?
Anthelmintic for tapeworm infestation.
185
What is the scientific name of Vanilla?
Vanilla planifolia or Vanilla tahitensis.
186
What is the principal flavoring constituent of Vanilla?
Vanillin.
187
What is the second most expensive spice in the world?
Vanilla.
188
What is the primary structure of flavonoids derived from?
The phenylpropanoid branch of the shikimate pathway.
189
What is the nucleus most flavonoids have?
Gamma-benzopyrone.
190
What is quercetin used for in pharmacognosy?
As a standard to determine the total flavonoid content of an extract.
191
What are isoflavonoids known for?
Being precursors to estrogen, also known as phytoestrogens.
192
What are the components yielded by rutin?
Quercetin (aglycone), rhamnose, and glucose.
193
What is the significance of phenol rings and hydroxyl groups in flavonoids?
They are responsible for the antioxidant properties.
194
What is the effect of increasing hydroxyl groups on antioxidant activity?
More hydroxyl groups lead to better antioxidant activity.
195
What is the common color change of anthocyanidins when boiled or acid is added?
They become colorless (Leucocyanidin).
196
What is the largest group of naturally occurring phenols?
Flavonoids.
197
What are chalcones known for in terms of plant pigmentation?
They are yellow pigments found in flowers.
198
What is the scientific name of Milk Thistle?
Silybium marianum.
199
What are the constituents of Milk Thistle known for their hepatoprotective effect?
Silbinin (a mix of silybin A and silybin B).
200
What is the active constituent of Soy Isoflavones?
Genistein.
201
What are the uses of Soy Isoflavones?
Prevents atherosclerosis, increases memory and mental flexibility, and alleviates menopausal symptoms.
202
What is the primary benefit of Tea Catechins?
Controls lipid levels and prevents atherosclerosis and coronary disease.
203
What is the potential anticancer compound found in Tea?
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG).
204
What is the scientific name of Cacao?
Theobroma cacao.
205
What are the constituents of Cranberry that help prevent UTI-causing microbes?
Procyanidins and other flavonoids and polyphenols.
206
What is the lactone glycoside that is a hydroxycinnamic acid lactone used as a flavoring agent?
Coumarin.
207
What is the anticoagulant derived from Coumarin?
Warfarin.
208
What are furanocoumarins and where are they found?
Furanocoumarins are compounds found in grapefruit juice.
209
What is the effect of furanocoumarins on CYP450 enzymes?
They inhibit CYP450 enzymes (CYP3A4, CYP3A5), leading to higher drug concentrations and potential toxicity.
210
What serious condition can occur when statins are taken with grapefruit juice?
Rhabdomyolysis.
211
What is the role of warfarin in anticoagulation?
Warfarin inhibits the reduction of vitamin K, preventing the activation of clotting factors.
212
What is the consequence of taking warfarin?
It leads to bleeding due to the inability to convert clotting factors to their active form.
213
What is dicoumarol and its source?
Dicoumarol is derived from improperly cured leaves and flowering tops of Melilotus officinalis and is used as an anticoagulant.
214
What is cantharidin and its uses?
Cantharidin is a constituent of Cantharis vesicatoria, used as an irritant, vesicant, rubefacient, and aphrodisiac.
215
What are psoralens and their medicinal uses?
Psoralens, such as methoxsalen, aid in repigmentation for idiopathic vitiligo and control symptoms of psoriasis.
216
What is the scientific name for grapefruit juice?
Citrus paradisi.
217
What are cardiac glycosides known for?
They have a specific action on cardiac tissues, increasing the force of systolic contraction.
218
What are the aglycones associated with cardiac glycosides?
Cardenolide and bufadienolide.
219
What is the primary effect of inhibiting Na+/K+ ATPase in heart muscles?
It increases the Ca+2 inside the heart muscles, leading to a positive inotropic effect.
220
What is the use of cardiac glycosides like Digitalis?
They are used for Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) to help pump out enough blood.
221
What are the two main types of cardiac glycosides?
Cardenolides and Bufadienolides.
222
What is a characteristic of Cardenolides?
They have a five-member unsaturated lactone and usually contain 23 carbons.
223
What distinguishes Bufadienolides from Cardenolides?
Bufadienolides have a six-member unsaturated lactone and usually contain 24 carbons.
224
What are the active constituents of Digitalis purpurea?
Digitoxin, gitoxin, and gitaloxin.
225
What is the difference in half-life between Digitoxin and Digoxin?
Digitoxin has a longer half-life (168 to 192 hours) compared to Digoxin (30 to 40 hours).
226
What is the role of Digibind or DigiFab?
They are digoxin-specific antibodies that bind to excess digoxin in the blood for excretion.
227
What electrolyte imbalances can occur with digitalis use?
Hypercalcemia, hypernatremia, and hypokalemia.
228
What is the scientific name of Black Indian Hemp?
Apocynum cannabinum.
229
What is the scientific name of Lily of the Valley?
Convallaria majalis.
230
What is the main constituent of Black Hellebore?
Hellebrin.
231
What are the constituents of Adonis?
Adonitoxin, cymarin, K-strophantin.
232
What is the use of Strophanthus seeds?
Preparation of arrow poisons.
233
What is the main constituent of Squill?
Scillaren A.
234
What is the scientific name of Oleander?
Nerium oleander.
235
What does the Keller Kiliani test indicate?
Presence of deoxy sugar.
236
What is a characteristic of saponin glycosides in aqueous solution?
They form a froth.
237
What is the effect of saponins on red blood cells?
They can hemolyze RBCs.
238
What is the qualitative test for saponins?
Froth test.
239
What is the primary use of Dioscorea floribunda?
It is the best source of steroids and major precursors of glucocorticoids.
240
What are the constituents of Sarsaparilla root?
Smilagenin, sarsasapogenin, and parillin.
241
What are the uses of Ginseng?
It is used as an aphrodisiac, adaptogen, and for treating anemia, diabetes, gastritis, and sexual impotence.
242
What is Glycyrrhizin and its primary use?
It is a sweet compound used as an expectorant and flavoring agent.
243
What caution should be taken when using Liquorice?
It can cause fluid/Na+ retention and reduce K+, leading to hypernatremia and hypokalemia.
244
What are the constituents of Gotu Kola?
Asiaticoside and centelloside.
245
What is the primary use of Quillaja bark?
It is used as a detergent and emulsifier.
246
What is the historical use of Gugo?
It was used to wash hair (shampoo).
247
What role do steroids play in humans?
They are essential for steroid hormones, Vitamin D, and other biological functions.
248
What are some significant natural plant products related to steroids?
Cardiac glycosides, saponins, and steroidal alkaloids.
249
What is the scientific name of White Mustard?
Brassica alba.
250
What is the main constituent of White Mustard?
Sinalbin.
251
What does Sinalbin yield after hydrolysis?
Acrinyl isothiocyanate.
252
What is the purpose of the Ferric Chloride Test?
To identify non-volatile glycosides.
253
What is the scientific name of the plant that produces Steviosides?
Stevia rebaudiana.
254
How much sweeter are Steviosides compared to sugar?
200-300 times.
255
What is the scientific name of Red Sandalwood?
Pterocarpus santalinus.
256
What is the main constituent of Red Sandalwood?
Santalin.
257
What is the scientific name of Fishberry?
Anamirta cocculus.
258
What is the main constituent of Fishberry?
Picrotoxin.
259
Which glycoside is used as a treatment for idiopathic vitiligo?
Psoralens.
260
Which of the following is not a cardiac glycoside: Apocynum, Convallaria, Strophantus, or Green Hellebore?
Green Hellebore.
261
What is the aldehyde responsible for the aroma and taste of vanilla?
Vanillin.
262
What are tannins primarily composed of?
A mixture of polyphenols that do not crystallize.
263
What are the usual sources of tannins?
Barks and stems.
264
What are some uses of tannins?
Astringent, antidote to alkaloidal poisoning, precipitants, and in the tanning and dyeing industry.
265
What is a caution associated with tannins?
They can be carcinogenic, such as in the chewing of betel nut.
266
What are pseudotannins?
Simpler phenolic substances with a molecular weight of around <1,000.
267
How do pseudotannins differ from true tannins?
Pseudotannins do not precipitate leather but can precipitate gelatin.
268
What is the molecular weight range of true tannins?
Around 1,000 to 5,000.
269
What is the significance of molecular size in true tannins?
They must be moderate-sized to effectively crosslink protein molecules.
270
What are the two classifications of true tannins?
Hydrolyzable tannins and non-hydrolyzable tannins.
271
What happens to hydrolyzable tannins when treated with 3N HCl?
They are easily hydrolyzed to sugar and phenolic acids.
272
What color indicates a positive test for tannins with FeCl3?
Blue-black color.
273
What is the result of the matchstick test for tannins?
A positive result shows a pink or red color.
274
What are hydrolyzable tannins primarily composed of?
They contain glucose, thus forming glycosides.
275
How are hydrolyzable tannins classified?
Based on the phenolic aglycones, such as gallotannin and ellagitannin.
276
What is the aglycone of gallotannin?
Gallic acid.
277
What distinguishes non-hydrolyzable (condensed) tannins from hydrolyzable tannins?
Non-hydrolyzable tannins contain flavonoids and do not readily hydrolyze to simpler molecules.
278
What are common sources of non-hydrolyzable tannins?
Cinnamon bark, hamamelis bark, Krameria, male fern roots, cocoa, kola, and areca seed.
279
What is a characteristic of complex tannins?
They are a hybrid mix of both hydrolyzable and non-hydrolyzable tannins.
280
What is the scientific name of witch hazel?
Hamamelis virginiana.
281
What are the uses of witch hazel?
It has astringent and hemostatic properties and is anti-inflammatory.
282
What is the scientific name of nutgall?
Quercus infectoria.
283
What causes the formation of nutgall?
The puncture of the insect Cynips tinctoria.
284
What is the primary use of nutgall?
In the tanning and dyeing industry, as well as an astringent.
285
What is the scientific name of Pomegranate?
Punica granatum.
286
What is the primary constituent of Pomegranate?
28% ellagitannin (primarily punicalagin).
287
What are the uses of Pomegranate?
Astringent, for diarrhea, synergism with antibiotics, potential against herpes and HIV.
288
What is the scientific name of Cranberry?
Vaccinium macrocarpon.
289
What is the primary use of Cranberry?
For urinary tract infections.
290
What is the solubility of Cranberry constituents?
Soluble in water, alcohol, glycerol, dilute alkalis, and acetone
291
What does the Gelatin Test indicate?
It yields positive for both true tannin and pseudotannin.
292
What is the significance of the Matchstick Test?
It tests for catechin (pseudotannin) and indicates the presence of non-hydrolysable tannins.
293
What are general uses of tannins?
Astringent, treatment for burns, protein precipitant, antioxidant, and antidote.
294
What are the dangers associated with tannins?
Can cause severe central necrosis of the liver (hepatotoxic) and are carcinogenic.
295
What is the basic unit of lipids?
Triglyceride, formed from three fatty acids and one glycerol.
296
What are the three kinds of lipids mentioned?
Fixed oils, fats, and waxes.
297
What is the state of fixed oils at room temperature?
Liquid, except for cocoa butter.
298
What distinguishes fats from fixed oils?
Fats are saturated and solid at room temperature, while fixed oils are unsaturated and liquid.
299
What is unique about jojoba oil?
It is the only liquid plant wax.
300
What does the acid value measure?
The number of mg KOH needed to neutralize the free acids in 1 g of sample.
301
What does the iodine number indicate?
The degree of unsaturation in fats or oils, measuring the number of double bonds.
302
What are the three classes of active ingredients in medicinal plants?
Terpenes, aromatic compounds, and alkaloids.
303
What is the significance of the mevalonate pathway?
It is involved in the biosynthesis of terpenoids and fatty acids.
304
What is the role of Acetyl CoA in lipid biosynthesis?
It combines with malonyl to form fatty acids, glycerol, and other lipids.
305
What is the starting compound in the Mevalonate Pathway that leads to the formation of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP)?
Mevalonate.
306
What are the two isomers produced in the Mevalonate Pathway?
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP).
307
What is the product of the reaction between DMAPP and IPP?
Geranyl Pyrophosphate (GPP).
308
What does GPP combine with to form Farnesyl Pyrophosphate (FPP)?
Another molecule of IPP.
309
What are the two types of volatile oils derived from monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes?
Acyclic and cyclic non-aromatic volatile oils.
310
What are the products of FPP when it undergoes further reactions?
Sterols and triterpenes.
311
What is the role of Ubiquinone in the Electron Transport Chain?
It acts as an electron carrier and is an antioxidant.
312
What is the main unit of triglycerides?
Glycerol and three fatty acids.
313
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated triglycerides?
Saturated triglycerides have no double bonds, while unsaturated triglycerides have double bonds.
314
What is the scientific name of the castor oil seed?
Ricinus communis.
315
What toxic component is found in castor oil seeds?
Ricin, a toxic lectin.
316
What is the primary use of ricinoleic acid derived from castor oil?
As a stimulant cathartic and in vaginal jelly.
317
What is the scientific name of Olive Oil?
Ripe fruit of Olea europea.
318
What is the primary use of Castor Oil?
Plasticizer in flexible collodion.
319
What is Azelaic acid used for?
Treatment of acne.
320
What is the scientific name of Soybean Oil?
Ripe seed of Glycine soja.
321
What is a significant constituent of Coconut Oil?
Lauric and myristic acids.
322
What is the primary use of Safflower Oil?
Varnish or waterproofing material, antilipemic.
323
What is the scientific name of Theobroma Oil?
Roasted seeds of Theobroma cacao.
324
What is the main constituent of Saw Palmetto?
Lauric acid.
325
What is the use of Ethiodized Oil?
Radiopaque
326
What are the constituents of Rapeseed/Canola Oil?
Oleic, linoleic, linolenic acids.
327
What is the scientific name for corn oil?
Oil from the embryo of Zea mays.
328
What are the main constituents of corn oil?
Oleic and linoleic acid.
329
What is gossypol and where is it found?
A toxic principle found in cottonseed oil (Gossypium hirsutum).
330
What is the primary use of peanut oil?
As a dietary supplement and cooking oil.
331
What is lanolin derived from?
Purified fat-like substance from the wool of sheep (Ovis aries).
332
What is the main therapeutic use of cod liver oil?
It is a predominant source of vitamins A and D.
333
What fatty acids are produced from the hydrolysis of fats or oils?
Stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid.
334
What is the use of stearic acid?
As an emulsion adjunct and tablet lubricant.
335
What is the significance of linoleic and linolenic acid?
They are essential fatty acids and precursors of prostaglandins.
336
What is the scientific name for lard?
From the purified internal fat of Sus scrofa (pig).
337
What are the types of saturated fatty acids listed?
Caproic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, and arachidic.
338
What are the types of unsaturated fatty acids listed?
Palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic.
339
What is the classification of unsaturated fatty acids based on the number of double bonds?
Monounsaturated (1 C=C) or polyunsaturated (more than 1).
340
What is the delta notation used for in unsaturated fatty acids?
It indicates the number of carbons, double bonds, and locants of double bonds.
341
What is the omega number in fatty acids?
It represents the number of carbons from the last one before reaching the first double bond.
342
What is the primary function of waxes in plants?
Protection from loss of water and control of consistency in ointments and cosmetic creams.
343
What is spermaceti and its source?
A wax obtained from the head of the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus).
344
What is beeswax and its significant lipid constituents?
A wax produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera), containing myricyl palmitate and free cerotic acid.
345
What is the use of propolis collected by bees?
It is used to fill cracks or gaps in the hive.
346
What is the scientific name of carnauba wax?
Copernicia prunifera.
347
What are prostaglandins derived from?
C20 lipid metabolites derived from essential unsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid.
348
What is the use of Prostaglandin E1 (PGE1)?
Palliative therapy for neonates with patent ductus arteriosus and congenital heart defects.
349
What is the primary use of Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)?
Termination of second trimester pregnancy.
350
What adverse effects are associated with Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)?
Vomiting, pyrexia, diarrhea, nausea, but no hypertension and vasoconstriction.
351
What is the function of Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α)?
It acts as a uterine stimulant and is used for termination of second trimester pregnancy.
352
What is the use of 15-Methylprostaglandin F2α (Carboprost)?
Termination of second trimester pregnancy and as a uterine stimulant given deep IM.
353
What is Misoprostol used for?
Treatment of NSAID-induced ulcers
354
Why is Misoprostol banned in some countries?
Due to its abortifacient properties.
355
What are eicosanoids derived from?
C20 derivatives of arachidonic acid.
356
What enzymes are involved in the production of eicosanoids?
COX and LOX enzymes.
357
What are the main types of eicosanoid derivatives?
Prostaglandin, prostacyclin, thromboxane, HETEs, leukotriene, lipoxin.
358
What is the role of NSAIDs in relation to COX enzymes?
NSAIDs inhibit COX enzymes, reducing the production of prostanoids.
359
What is a potential side effect of COX-2 inhibitors?
They may be linked to cardiovascular problems.
360
What is the effect of leukotrienes in asthma?
Leukotrienes are 400x more potent as inflammatory agents and bronchoconstrictors than prostaglandins.
361
Why are NSAIDs contraindicated for asthmatic patients?
Inhibiting COX can lead to increased LOX activity, inducing bronchoconstriction.
362
What is the role of corticosteroids in asthma management?
They inhibit phospholipase, preventing the formation of arachidonic acid and inflammation.
363
What do bronchodilators do in asthma treatment?
They help relieve asthma attacks by dilating the airways.
364
What are the characteristics of volatile oils?
They are odoriferous, optically active, immiscible with water, and soluble in organic solvents.
365
What is the principal component of essential oils?
Terpenes.
366
What is the function of volatile oils in plants?
They act as insect repellants and attractants for fertilization.
367
Which method is best for obtaining citrus volatile oils?
Expression.
368
What is the difference between fixed oils and volatile oils?
Fixed oils cannot be distilled, while volatile oils can be distilled from natural sources.
369
What is the process of repeated distillation to purify volatile oils called?
Cohobation.
370
What is the method used for glycosidic volatile oils?
Enzymatic hydrolysis.
371
What type of distillation is applied to fresh materials without maceration?
Direct steam distillation.
372
What are the anatomical sources of volatile oils in the Rutaceae family?
Schizogenous/lysigenous ducts.
373
What is the role of anhydrous calcium sulfate in essential oil extraction?
It acts as a drying agent to purify essential oils.
374
What is the primary constituent of volatile oil that forms p-cymene upon hydrogenation?
Citral.
375
What apparatus is commonly used for the extraction of volatile oils?
Soxhlet apparatus.
376
What is a significant advantage of using the Soxhlet extraction method?
It is a fast way and preserves quality at controlled temperatures.
377
What is the disadvantage of the Soxhlet extraction method?
It is expensive.
378
What is enfleurage used for?
To obtain small amounts of volatile oil from plant parts like flower petals.
379
What is the resulting product called when fatty products are impregnated with floral odor?
Pomade.
380
What is the chief solvent used in percolation with volatile solvents?
Highly purified petroleum benzene.
381
What is the process of obtaining oils by heating without access to air called?
Destructive distillation.
382
What are the three broad classes of volatile oils?
Terpenoids, Phenylpropanoids, and Aromatic Compounds.
383
What pathway do terpenoids form through?
The acetate-mevalonate acid pathway.
384
What is the precursor for phenylpropanoids?
Cinnamic acid.
385
What are the two types of monoterpenes based on their structure?
Acyclic and cyclic monoterpenes.
386
What is the formula for Monoterpenes?
C10H16.
387
What is Limonene known for?
It is the most widely distributed monoterpene and can be topically applied as treatment for breast cancer.
388
What is Quinghaosu derived from?
Artemisia annua, and it is a common source for antimalarial agents.
389
What is the formula for Sesquiterpenes?
C15H24.
390
What is the primary use of Neem (Azadirachta indica)?
It is used as an insect repellent.
391
What is the hydrocarbon portion of volatile oils called?
Eleoptene.
392
What is the oxidized hydrocarbon portion of volatile oils called?
Stearoptene.
393
What is Turpentine oil derived from?
Volatile oil from Pinus palustris.
394
What is the primary use of Juniperus communis?
It is used as a diuretic and antiseptic.
395
What is the precursor of guaifenesin?
Guaiacol.
396
What is the scientific name of Peppermint Oil?
Mentha piperita.
397
What is the main constituent of Peppermint Oil?
Menthol.
398
What are the uses of Peppermint Oil?
Carminative, counterirritant, flavor in chewing gums.
399
What is the scientific name of Coriander Oil?
Coriandrium sativum.
400
What is the main constituent of Coriander Oil?
Linalool.
401
What is the scientific name of Cardamom Oil?
Elettaria cardamomum.
402
What is the main constituent of Cardamom Oil?
Cineol.
403
What is the scientific name of Rose Oil?
Rosa gallica.
404
What are the main constituents of Rose Oil?
Geraniol, nerol, citronellol.
405
What is the scientific name of Neroli Oil?
Citrus aurantium.
406
What is the main constituent of Neroli Oil?
Linalool.
407
What is the scientific name of Juniper Oil?
Juniper communis.
408
What are the main constituents of Juniper Oil?
ɲ-pinene, b-pinene.
409
What is the scientific name of Pine Oil?
Pinus palustris.
410
What is the main constituent of Pine Oil?
ɲ-terpineol.
411
What is the scientific name of Cinnamon Oil?
Cinnamomum loureirii, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamomum cassia.
412
What is the main constituent of Cinnamon Oil?
Cinnamaldehyde.
413
What is the scientific name of Lemon Oil?
Citrus limon.
414
What is the main constituent of Lemon Oil?
Citral.
415
What does a Terebinthinate odor indicate?
Volatile oils that have undergone resinification.
416
What happens to volatile oils with high terpenes?
They easily resinify.
417
What are terpeneless volatile oils?
Oils with 95% of terpenes removed, no deterioration, no odor.
418
What is the scientific name for Orange Oil?
Citrus sinensis.
419
What are the main constituents of Citronella Oil?
Citronellal and citral.
420
What is the use of Hamamelis Water?
It is used as an astringent in hemorrhoid preparations.
421
What is the scientific name for Camphor?
Cinnamomum camphora.
422
What is the optical rotation of Spearmint?
+41 or +43 (dextrorotary).
423
What is the primary use of Wormwood Oil?
Promotes appetite and strengthens treatment of colds and influenza.
424
What is the main constituent of Thyme Oil?
Thymol.
425
What is Eugenol commonly used for?
As a dental analgesic and in toothache drops.
426
What is the scientific name for Clove Oil?
Eugenia caryophyllus.
427
What is the precursor to the antitussive guaifenesin?
Guaiacol from Creosote.
428
What is the scientific name of Juniper Tar / Cade Oil?
Juniper oxycedrus.
429
What is a primary constituent of Pine Tar?
Phenol and creosol.
430
What are the scientific names of Oregano?
Origanum onites (pot marjoram) and Origanum vulgare (wild marjoram).
431
What are the uses of Oregano?
Antitussive and expectorant.
432
What is the primary constituent of Nutmeg Oil?
Primarily a-pinene, b-pinene, sabinene, myristicin, and elemicin.
433
What is the use of Fennel Oil?
Purgative.
434
What is the scientific name of Sweet Flag?
Acorus calamus.
435
What is a toxic constituent found in Sassafras?
Safrole.
436
What is the primary use of Eucalyptus Oil?
Flavor, antiseptic, diaphoretic, expectorant.
437
What is the scientific name of the allied drug Mindanao gum?
Eucalyptus deglupta.
438
What is the scientific name of Wintergreen?
Gaultheria procumbens.
439
What is the main constituent of Wintergreen oil?
Methyl salicylate.
440
What are the uses of Wintergreen oil?
Antirheumatic, antiseptic, flavor.
441
What is the scientific name of Lavender oil?
Lavandula angustifolia.
442
What is the main constituent of Lavender oil?
Linalyl acetate.
443
What is the use of Lavender oil?
Relaxing oil for aromatherapy (massage, headache).
444
What is the scientific name of Pine Needle oil?
Pinus mugo.
445
What is the main constituent of Mustard oil?
Allyl isothiocyanate.
446
What is the use of Rosemary oil?
Antibacterial, carminative, spasmolytic
447
What are the scientific names of alliaceous plants?
Garlic (Allium sativum), Onion (Allium cepa), Leeks (Allium odorum).
448
What is the active ingredient found in Teaberry?
Methyl salicylate.
449
Which volatile oil is used as an analgesic agent?
Methyl salicylate.
450
Which volatile oil has amphetamine-like effects?
Eugenol.
451
Which of the following serves as the source of tannin and volatile oils?
Hammamelis.
452
What are resins formed from?
The oxidation of volatile oils.
453
What is the physical state of resins?
Amorphous products with a complex nature, hard, transparent or translucent, and they soften and melt when heated.
454
What are the main components of oleoresins?
Both volatile oil and resin.
455
What are resin acids used for?
In soaps and varnishes.
456
What is a characteristic of resenes?
They are neutral and do not form salts.
457
What is an example of a glycoresin?
Jalap (Exogonium purga).
458
What is the scientific name for Podophyllum?
Podophyllum peltatum.
459
What is the primary use of Cannabis sativa?
As a euphoric and for controlling chemotherapy-induced nausea.
460
What is the main active component in Cannabis?
THC (tetrahydrocannabinol).
461
What is the use of Mastic?
Chewed as a breath sweetener and used in dental varnish.
462
What is the scientific name of Kava?
Piper methysticum.
463
What are the constituents of Kava?
Yangonin, kawain, methysticin.
464
What is the primary use of Kava?
Centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxants, antipyretic, anesthetic.
465
What is the scientific name of Turpentine?
Pinus palustris.
466
What are the constituents of Ginger?
Bisabolene, zingiberene, zingiberol, zingerone, shogaol, gingerol.
467
What is the primary use of Copaiba?
Genitourinary antiseptic, diuretic.
468
What is the scientific name of Capsicum?
Capsicum frutescens and Capsicum annum.
469
What is the main constituent of Capsicum?
Capsaicin.
470
What is the scientific name of Myrrh?
Commiphora molmol.
471
What are the constituents of Myrrh?
D, E, and ɶ-commiphoric acids, protocatechuic acids.
472
What is the primary use of Benzoin?
Antiseptic, stimulant, expectorant.
473
What is the scientific name of Garcinia used for Gamboge?
Garcinia hanburyi.
474
What is the primary use of Tolu Balsam?
Pharmaceutical aid for CBT, expectorant, flavor.
475
What compound is used in perfumery due to its vanilla-like odor?
Coniferyl benzoate.
476
What is Compound Benzoin Tincture used for?
As a topical protectant.
477
Which components are used to prepare Compound Benzoin Tincture?
Storax, Tolu Balsam, Aloe, and Benzoin.
478
What is the current source of benzoic acid?
Synthetic ally produced.
479
What are the uses of benzoic acid?
Antifungal, preservative of food, and pharmaceutical preparations.
480
What differentiates Siamese Benzoin from Sumatra Benzoin?
Siamese has a warming effect and a vanilla-like odor, while Sumatra has a faint odor of benzaldehyde.
481
What color change occurs with Ferric Chloride when testing Siamese Benzoin?
Green color.
482
Which of the following is NOT a resin: Rosin, Eriodictyon, Cannabis, or Turpentine?
Eriodictyon.
483
Which of the following is NOT a balsam: Peru Balsam, Balsam of Copaiba, Tolu Balsam, or Storax?
Balsam of Copaiba.
484
What families are associated with rubber formation?
Moraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Asteraceae.
485
What is latex composed of?
Microscopic particles suspended in a liquid serum contained in specialized latex cells.
486
What determines the milky character of latex?
The presence of a refractive index greatly different from that of the dispersion medium.
487
Which alkaloid is found in the latex of the Papaveraceae?
Alkaloids.
488
What is the scientific name of the Indian Rubber tree?
Ficus elastica.
489
What is the composition of rubber?
Linear chains of about 1500 to 60,000 C5 isoprenoid units linked by cis double bonds.
490
What is gutta percha derived from?
Purified, coagulated latex from trees of the genera Palaquium and Payena.
491
How does gutta percha differ from rubber?
It is almost incapable of vulcanization and becomes plastic when heated to about 45-60 °C.
492
What is chicle and where is it obtained from?
A polyisoprenoid obtained from Manilkara zapota (Sapotaceae), used as the base for original chewing gum.
493
What is balata and its source?
Dried latex obtained from Mimusops balata (Sapotaceae), used in bubble gum manufacture.
494
What are the constituents of Indian Rubber?
Caoutchouc and cerotic acid.
495
What is the use of chico/sapodilla?
Used for diarrhea and fever.
496
What are alkaloids?
Organic nitrogenous compounds with varied pharmacologic actions.
497
What is the pH and taste characteristic of alkaloids?
Basic pH and bitter taste.
498
What is the physical state of most alkaloids?
Usually crystalline or amorphous solids.
499
Which alkaloids are exceptions and exist as liquids?
Coniine, Nicotine, Sparteine, and Arecoline (CNSA).
500
What color is berberine, and what is its significance?
Berberine is yellow and is rich in the plant Makabuhay.
501
What is required for a compound to be classified as a true alkaloid?
It should be derived from amino acids.
502
What are the four types of amines found in alkaloids?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary amines.
503
What are alkaloidal bases known as?
Free alkaloids.
504
How can alkaloids be made soluble in water?
By converting them into salts.
505
What is an example of an alkaloidal salt?
Quinine sulfate.
506
Who discovered narcotine and in what year?
Derosne discovered narcotine in 1803.
507
What is the most important opium alkaloid?
Morphine.
508
Which alkaloids were discovered by Pelletier and Caventou?
Brucine, emetine, strychnine, piperine, quinine, caffeine, colchicine, and coniine.
509
What is the significance of Schiff's discovery?
He established the structure of coniine, the first alkaloid with an established structure.
510
What are true alkaloids?
Compounds with nitrogen atoms enclosed within a ring system.
511
What are pseudoalkaloids?
Alkaloids that are not derived from amino acids.
512
What is the role of tannic acid in relation to alkaloids?
It acts as a universal antidote by precipitating alkaloids and inhibiting their absorption in the stomach.
513
What is the classification of alkaloids based on their structure?
They can be classified as true alkaloids, pseudoalkaloids, and protoalkaloids.
514
What is the Shikimic Acid Pathway?
A metabolic pathway that leads to the synthesis of various compounds including gallic acid and hydrolyzable tannins.
515
What is the positive result for the Marquis test?
Blue color indicates the presence of codeine.
516
What are the products of the chorismate pathway?
Anthraquinone, Phenol, Alcohol.
517
What are the products of the prephenate pathway?
Aldehyde, Lactone, Flavonoid.
518
What is catechin classified as?
Flavan-3-ol.
519
What type of tannins are condensed/non-hydrolyzable?
NHT (Non-Hydrolyzable Tannins).
520
What is the significance of phenylalanine in newborn screening?
It is tested for the presence of phenyl hydroxylase, which is crucial for the production of tyrosine and affects CNS development.
521
What condition is caused by a lack of phenyl hydroxylase?
Phenylketonuria, which can lead to mental retardation.
522
What are the main types of alkaloidal rings mentioned?
Pyridine, Piperidine, Pyrrolidine, Quinoline, Isoquinoline, Imidazole, Indole, Purine, Tropane.
523
What is nicotine derived from?
Pyrrolidone.
524
What is the scientific name for nicotine?
Nicotiana tabacum.
525
What is the primary use of nicotine?
As a smoking deterrent and CNS stimulant.
526
What is the scientific name of Areca Nut?
Areca catechu.
527
What is the main constituent of Areca Nut?
Arecoline.
528
What are the uses of Areca Nut?
Masticatory (betel chewing), taenicide, anthelmintic (veterinary).
529
What is the scientific name of Lobelia?
Lobelia inflata.
530
What is the main constituent of Lobelia?
Lobeline.
531
What is a significant use of Lobelia?
Smoking deterrent.
532
What is the scientific name of Poison Hemlock?
Conium maculatum.
533
What is the main constituent of Poison Hemlock?
Coniine.
534
What historical use did Poison Hemlock have?
Used by Greeks for executions, including Socrates.
535
What is the scientific name of Duboisia?
Duboisia myoporoides.
536
What alkaloids are primarily sourced from Duboisia?
Atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine.
537
What is the scientific name of Belladonna?
Atropa belladonna.
538
What are the main constituents of Belladonna?
Hyoscyamine and atropine.
539
What is a primary use of Belladonna?
Anticholinergic effects (mydriatic, antidiarrheal).
540
What is the scientific name of Jimson Weed?
Datura stramonium.
541
What are the constituents of Jimson Weed?
Hyoscyamine and scopolamine.
542
What is the use of Jimson Weed?
Anticholinergic, vapor from burnt weed relieves asthma.
543
What is the scientific name of Mandragora?
Mandragora officinarum.
544
What are the constituents of Mandragora?
Hyoscyamine, scopolamine, mandragorine.
545
What are the aromatic portions of belladonna alkaloids?
Tropic acid.
546
What is the primary use of atropine?
For eye examinations as a mydriatic.
547
What is the scientific name of coca?
Erythroxylum coca.
548
What is the primary constituent of coca?
Cocaine.
549
What is the mechanism of action of cocaine?
Blocks reuptake of dopamine back to presynaptic neurons.
550
What are the constituents of cinchona?
Quinine and quinidine.
551
What condition does quinine primarily treat?
Malaria.
552
What is cinchonism?
Loss of hearing, ringing in the ears, impaired sight due to quinine.
553
What is the effect of quinine on Plasmodium?
It prevents the conversion of heme to hemozoin, leading to the death of Plasmodium.
554
What is the use of quinidine?
For prophylaxis of cardiac arrhythmias and treatment of AFib.
555
What is the scientific name of the Happy Tree?
Camptotheca acuminata.
556
What is the main constituent of Camptotheca acuminata?
Camptothecin (CPT).
557
How does camptothecin act in malignant cells?
It acts as a topoisomerase inhibitor.
558
What types of cancer are treated with camptothecin derivatives?
Colon and lung cancer.
559
What are the two classes of isoquinoline alkaloids mentioned?
Benzylisoquinoline and Tetrahydroisoquinoline.
560
What is the scientific name of Ipecac?
Cephaelis ipecacuanha.
561
What are the main constituents of Ipecac?
Cephaeline and emetine.
562
What is the use of Ipecac?
As a local emetic and in poison antidote kits.
563
What is the scientific name of Goldenseal?
Hydrastis canadensis.
564
What are the constituents of Goldenseal?
Hydrastine, berberine, and canadine.
565
What is the use of Goldenseal?
As an astringent in inflammation of mucous membranes.
566
What is the scientific name of Blood Root?
Sanguinaria canadensis.
567
Which family does Blood Root belong to?
Papaveraceae.
568
What are the main constituents of Blood Root?
Sanguinarine, chelerythrine, protopine.
569
What is Tubocurarine derived from?
Strychnos castelnaei.
570
What type of muscle relaxant is Tubocurarine?
Nondepolarizing skeletal muscle relaxant.
571
What is the mechanism of action (MOA) of Tubocurarine?
Blocks nerve impulses to skeletal muscles, causing paralysis.
572
What is the primary alkaloid found in opium?
Morphine.
573
What are the uses of opium?
CNS stimulant, depressant, narcotic analgesic, hypnotic.
574
What is the significance of meconic acid in opium?
It indicates the presence of opium and serves as a chemotaxonomic marker for Papaveraceae.
575
What are some examples of indole alkaloids?
Ergotamine, physostigmine, reserpine, strychnine.
576
What is the effect of morphine?
Narcotic analgesic and hypnotic.
577
What is the relationship between codeine and morphine?
Codeine is a less potent derivative of morphine, used as an antitussive.
578
What is the effect of heroin compared to morphine?
Heroin has more pronounced effects and is habit-forming.
579
What is the role of apomorphine?
It acts as a central emetic for poisonings.
580
What is the scientific name of Indian Snakeroot?
Rauvolfia serpentina.
581
What is the primary use of Reserpine?
Hypotensive (antihypertensive), sedative, tranquilizer.
582
What is the mechanism of action (MOA) of Reserpine?
Depletion of norepinephrine by inhibiting storage in postganglionic adrenergic endings.
583
What is the scientific name of Periwinkle?
Catharanthus roseus.
584
What are the main constituents of Periwinkle?
Vincristine and vinblastine.
585
What is the MOA of vincristine and vinblastine?
Arrest cell division at metaphase, antimitotic.
586
What is the scientific name of Nux Vomica?
Strychnos nux vomica.
587
What are the main constituents of Nux Vomica?
Strychnine and Brucine.
588
What is the primary use of Physostigma venenosum?
For treatment of glaucoma and myasthenia gravis.
589
What is the MOA of Physostigmine?
Anticholinesterase, enhances the effect of acetylcholine.
590
What is the scientific name of Ergot?
Claviceps purpurea.
591
What condition can ergotism cause?
Gangrene due to vasoconstrictive effects.
592
What is the MOA of ergotamine?
Constricts blood vessels in the brain, lowering intracranial pressure.
593
What is the scientific name of Jaborandi?
Pilocarpus jaborandi.
594
What is the primary use of Pilocarpine?
Muscarinic agonist for treatment of glaucoma.
595
What are the two groups of steroidal alkaloids classified by carbon number?
C27 group and C21 group.
596
What is the primary use of Hellebore?
Used as an insecticide.
597
What are alkaloidal amines also known as?
Protoalkaloids.
598
What is a key characteristic of protoalkaloids?
They do not have nitrogen as part of their heterocyclic ring system but are derived from amino acids.
599
From which amino acid are many protoalkaloids derived?
Phenylalanine.
600
What are some properties of protoalkaloids?
Antibacterial, antimalarial, and potential genotoxic properties.
601
What is the scientific name of Ma Huang?
Ephedra sinica.
602
What is ephedrine used for?
To combat hypotensive states, nasal congestion, asthma, and allergic conditions.
603
What tragic event is associated with ephedrine?
It caused hemorrhagic stroke in female patients over 40 years old.
604
What is the scientific name of Autumn Crocus?
Colchicum autumnale.
605
What is colchicine primarily used for?
As a first-line treatment for acute gout.
606
What is the scientific name of Khat?
Catha edulis.
607
What effect does cathinone have?
It has an indirect adrenergic effect, alleviating hunger and fatigue.
608
What is the scientific name of Peyote?
Lophophora williamsii.
609
What is mescaline known for?
Being the first psychotomimetic, hallucinogen, and euphoric substance.
610
What are purine bases also known as?
Pseudoalkaloids.
611
What is a key pharmacological effect of methylxanthines?
They are potent bronchodilators and stimulants due to increased cAMP via PDE inhibition.
612
What is caffeine's role in beverages?
It is a central stimulant and diuretic, commonly found in carbonated beverages.
613
What is the scientific name of Cola nuts?
Cola nitida.
614
What is the scientific name of the coffee bean?
Coffea arabica.
615
What is the primary constituent of coffee?
Caffeine.
616
What is the caffeine content in decaffeinized coffee?
Up to 0.08%.
617
What is the scientific name of guarana?
Paullinia cupana.
618
How does the caffeine content of guarana compare to coffee?
It has twice as much caffeine as coffee seeds.
619
What is the scientific name of mate or Paraguay tea?
Ilex paraguariensis.
620
What are the uses of mate?
Laxative, purgative, diaphoretic, diuretic.
621
What is the scientific name of tea?
Camelia sinensis.
622
What are the constituents of tea?
Caffeine, theobromine, theophylline.
623
What is the effective dose of theophylline for asthma relief?
10 mg.
624
What is the scientific name of cocoa?
Theobroma cacao.
625
What is the primary constituent of cocoa?
Theobromine.
626
What is the scientific name of Caucasian snowdrop?
Galanthus woronowii.
627
What is galantamine used for?
Cholinesterase inhibitor.
628
What is the scientific name of monkshood?
Aconitum napellus.
629
What can aconitine induce?
Cholinergic excess (nausea, diarrhea, hypotension, etc.).
630
What is the antidote for organophosphate poisoning?
Atropine (physiologic), Pralidoxime (2-PAM
631
What is the chemical name for methylmorphine?
Codeine.
632
What is a skeletal muscle relaxant without deep anesthesia?
Tubocurarine.
633
Which of the following is not an isoquinoline alkaloid?
Catharanthus.
634
What is colchicine used for?
As an antimitotic agent.
635
What are enzymes?
Highly selective organic catalysts produced by living organisms.
636
How do enzymes exert their catalytic reactions?
By lowering the energy of activation (Ea) of a reaction.
637
What is the optimal temperature range for enzyme activity?
Between 35°C and 40°C.
638
What happens to enzymes at temperatures above 65°C?
They become denatured.
639
What are the two main classifications of enzymes based on the type of reaction catalyzed?
Oxidoreductases and Transferases.
640
What do hydrolases do?
Cleave molecules through hydrolysis.
641
What is the function of lipase?
Converts fats into glycerin and fatty acids.
642
What is the role of pepsin?
Acts in gastric juice to digest proteins into proteoses and peptones.
643
What is the function of trypsin?
Converts proteoses and peptones into polypeptides and amino acids in the small intestine.
644
What does invertase do?
Converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
645
What is papain and where is it found?
Papain, known as 'vegetable pepsin', is found in unripe fruit of Carica papaya.
646
What are the uses of papain?
1) Meat tenderizer, digestant 2) Relieves episiotomy 3) Ingredient in cleansing solutions for contact lenses.
647
What is the function of peroxidase?
Peroxidase catalyzes oxidation reactions and causes discoloration of bruised fruits.
648
What does thrombin do?
Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin, forming a clot.
649
What is pancreatin and its uses?
Pancreatin contains lipase, amylase, and protease
650
What is the difference between pancreatin and pancrelipase?
Pancrelipase is a more concentrated form of pancreatin with increased lipase, amylase, and protease activity.
651
What is chymopapain used for?
Chymopapain is used for the treatment of herniated lumbar intervertebral discs and relieves lower back pains.
652
What are bromelains and their uses?
Bromelains are protein-digesting, milk-clotting enzymes from pineapple, used for anti-inflammatory purposes and to increase tissue repair.
653
What is the function of hyaluronidase?
Hyaluronidase hydrolyzes hyaluronic acid, promoting diffusion and hastening absorption.
654
What is the use of streptokinase?
Streptokinase is used for the treatment of pulmonary embolism and thrombosis.
655
What is L-asparaginase and its use?
L-asparaginase is used to induce remissions in acute leukemia by degrading L-asparagine.
656
What is the use of levodopa?
Levodopa is used to relieve symptoms of parkinsonism.
657
What is the function of protamine sulfate?
Protamine sulfate neutralizes heparin.
658
What is the role of heparin?
Heparin acts as an anticoagulant, prolonging clotting time.
659
What are the uses of penicillamine?
Penicillamine is used as a metal chelating agent for Wilson's disease and in rheumatoid arthritis.
660
What is gelatin and its uses?
Gelatin is formed from the partial hydrolysis of collagen and is used as an encapsulating agent and in topical protectants.
