Paper 3 - Relationships - Formation And Maintenance Using Economic Theories

Question 1

What are the 3 theories in this topic?

Answer 1

SET (Social Exchange Theory)
Investment model
Equity theory

Question 2

What is SET?

Answer 2

An economic theory which uses concepts from OC and economics. The theory states that we form a relationship because it is rewarding. It assumed that in a relationship we we attempt to maximise our rewards and minimise our costs
Since rewards-costs= outcome
We commit the relationship if the outcome is profitable

Question 3

What is the min max principle?

Answer 3

The exchange comes from the assumption that when people recieve rewards from others they feel obliged to reciprocate - this is the minimax principle

Question 4

What is the main thing that SET assumes?

Answer 4

That we try to maximise our utility by max rewards and min costs

Question 5

What is your comparison level?

Answer 5

Your comparison level is what you thing you deserve to get in a relationship
Based on experiences in previous relationships which feed into the expectations of our current one

Question 6

What may influence our comparison level?

Answer 6

Influenced by social norms - determined within a culture, a reasonable level of reward

Question 7

What will happen to our CL as we become are in more relationships?

Answer 7

It will change

Question 8

Explain comparison level of alternatives (CLalt)
What would SET predict?

Answer 8

In you current relationship people tend to consider:
Could i find another relationship with greater rewards and fewer costs?
Could i do better?
Social Exchange Theory predicts that we will in our current relationships, only as long as we believe it is more rewarding than the alternative
Duck (1994) said that there are plenty more fish in the sea

Question 9

Who made set theory?
When?

Answer 9

Thibaut and Kelly (1959)

Question 10

What are the 4 stages of a relationship?

Answer 10

Sampling
Bargaining
Commitment
Institutionalisation

Question 11

Which 2 relationship development stages are about maintaining the relationship?

Answer 11

Commitment
Institutionalisation
(The last 2)

Question 12

Explain the first stage of relationship development?

Answer 12

1) Sampling
We first look at all of the people who e are willing to have a relationship due to SET/CL
(We also do this in non romantic relationships)

Question 13

Explain the second stage of relationship development?

Answer 13

2) Bargaining
In the early stages of a relationship we give and receive rewards to test wether a deeper relationship is worthwhile
And as a result we negotiate with our partners what is most profitable

Question 14

Explain the third stage of relationship development?

Answer 14

3) Commitment
As the relationship progresses the predictability increases so each partner knows how to elicit rewards from the other which lowers costs

Question 15

Explain the 4th step of relationship development?

Answer 15

4) Institutionalisation
Once the relationship has occurs for a while relationship norms will start to occur which establishes the rewards and costs in the relationship

Question 16

What are the negative evaluations of SET?

Answer 16

Inappropriate assumptions
Direction of cause and effect
Ignoring Equity Theory
Measuring SET concepts
Artificial research

Question 17

Explain the negative evaluation of SET: Inappropriate assumptions

Answer 17

• Clark and Mills (2011) argue that SET fails to distinguish between two types of relationships.
• They suggest that exchange relationships such as between work colleagues, does involve social exchange as the SET predicts.
• Communal relationships do not keep tabs on rewards and costs.
• SET claims that reciprocal activities are monitored and weighed up
• This shows that there is less commitment in communal relationships

Question 18

Explain the negative evaluation of SET: Direction of cause and effect

Answer 18

• Argyle (1987) argues that we do not measure costs and rewards in a relationship, nor do we constantly consider the attractiveness of alternatives.
• Dissatisfaction comes first!
- Miller (1997) found that people who rated themselves as being in a highly committed relationship spent less time looking at images of attractive people.
- Less time spent looking was a predictor of the relationship continuing two months later

Question 19

Explain the negative evaluation of SET: Measuring SET concepts

Answer 19

Concepts are difficult to quantify
• Rewards and costs are defined superficially in order to measure them especially psychological rewards and costs
It is imposible to measure CL and CLalt levels accurately and consistency
On top of this you would need a valid and reliable way to do this

Question 20

Explain the negative evaluation of SET: Artificial research?

Answer 20

• Supporting research of SET use artificial tasks in artificial conditions.
• Game-playing scenario- two strangers work together and rewards and
costs are distributed.
• The two partners know nothing about each other and their so-called relationship depends on the task they are performing together.
• Research using real partners have been less supportive of SET

Question 21

Explain the positive evaluation of SET: Explanation power

Answer 21

The Cl-alt helps to explain why somebody would terminate a relationship they were not satisfied with (in that the alternative partner can offer even more)
It could help explain why people may stay in an abusive relationship. If someone has put a lot into the relationship and there is no Cl-alt then they may stay in that relationship.

Question 22

Who made the Investment model?
When?

Answer 22

Rusbult
1980

Question 23

What is the core identity of the Investment model?

Answer 23

The long term success of a relationship is determined by how committed the individuals are to the relationship,

Question 24

What factors will effect commitment levels according to the Investment model?

Answer 24

Satisfaction for the individual in the relationship
Comparison of alternative - (SET)
Investment - of factors such as emotion into the relationship

Question 25

Explain quality of alternatives in the Investment model?

Answer 25

If there are attracting alternatives we will leave
If there are no alternatives they may maintain the relationship (increases satisfaction)
However, if the disadvantages may be so overwhelming that no relationship would be preferred

Question 26

Explain investment size in the Investment model

Answer 26

If there is high investment then the relationship is more likely to be maintained

Question 27

What is investment?

Answer 27

Anything that will be lost if a relationship ends

Question 28

What are the different types of investment?

Answer 28

Intrinsic and extrinsic investment

Question 29

What is intrinsic investment?

Answer 29

What we put into a relationship directly

Question 30

What is extrinsic investment?

Answer 30

Joint resources that may be lost in a relationship eg children

Question 31

In the short run how are relationships maintained according to the investment model?

Answer 31

Small maintenance behaviours like doing the dishes (showing commitment)

Question 32

What are relationships maintained in the long term according to the investment model?

Answer 32

Partners don’t engage in tit for tat retaliations but act to promote and accommodate the relationship
A partner will put a partner’s interest first - willingness to sacrifice in the short term (eg after a surgery)
And there may be forgiveness for serious transgressions like cheating

Question 33

What are relationships maintained in the long term according to the investment model according to cognitive psychology?

Answer 33

• Committed partners think about each other and potential alternatives in specific and predictable ways
• Unrealistically positive about their partner – positive illusions
• Negative about tempting alternatives and other people’s relationships – ridiculing alternatives

Question 34

What are the positive evaluations for the Investment model?

Answer 34

Research support for the investment model
Le and Agnew (2003)
Explanation power in abusive relationships
Methodological strengths

Question 35

What are the negative evaluations in the Investment model?

Answer 35

Oversimplification
Correlational research

Question 36

Explain the positive evaluation of the investment model: Supporting research for the investment model?

Answer 36

To test this hypothesis, Rusbult asked college students in heterosexual relationships to complete questionnaires over a 7 month period.
They kept notes about how satisfactory their relationship was, how it compared with others and how much they had invested in it.
Students also noted how committed they felt to the relationship and whether it had ended.

The results showed that when satisfaction and investment is low and alternatives are high break ups happen
Results show that there is commitment to a relationship when satisfaction and investment is high and when alternative are a bit lower
Follow up studies confirmed these findings throughout both genders and lots of cultures

Question 37

Explain the positive evaluation of the investment model: Le and Agnew

Answer 37

• Conducted a meta–analysis of 52 studies, including 60 independent samples and 11,582 participants
• Results indicated satisfaction with, alternatives to, and investments in a relationship each correlated significantly with commitment to that relationship.
• Commitment, in turn, was found to be a significant predictor of relationship breakup.
• Support for the model was obtained in predicting commitment in both romantic relationships and platonic relationship, but was significantly stronger in romantic relationships

Question 38

Explain the positive evaluation of the investment model: Explaining abusive relationships?

Answer 38

Rusbult and Martz (1995)
•The investment model is thought to be particularly valid and useful explanation of relationships involving Intimate Partner Violence (IPV).
•They asked women living in refuge why they had stayed with their abusive partners instead of leaving them as soon as the abuse began.
•As predicted by the model, women had felt the greatest commitment to their relationship when their economic alternatives were poor and their investment was great.
Jerstad (2005) found that investments (time and effort) were the most important predictor of whether to stay with a violent partner.

Question 39

Explain the positive evaluation of the investment model: methodological strengths in research?

Answer 39

• Much of the evidence supporting the Investment model relies on self-report measures such as interviews and questionnaires.
• Generally these methods would be seen as a weakness but in this instance they are the most appropriate methods to use because it’s not the objective reality of factors that matter.
• What matters is the individual partner’s perception of these factors. It is your belief that you have made a big investment in your current relationship, or your belief that you have no attractive alternatives, that will influence your commitment. Whether the belief matches the objective reality of the situation is really neither her not there.

Question 40

Explain the negative evaluation of the Investment model: Oversimplification?

Answer 40

• There is more to investment than the resources put into relationships.
• In the early stages- very little investment is made.
• Investment in future plans- motivation to commit to each other to see their future plans, pan out.
• Limited explanation because it fails to recognise the true complexity of investment.

Question 41

What is equity?

Answer 41

Getting what you deserve

Question 42

What does equity theory suggest about relationships?

Answer 42

This theory suggests that satisfaction is about perceived fairness
If 1 partner is having less benefits that the other this will lead to anger, hostility, resentment and humiliation
If 1 partner is over benefiting then there may be guilt, discomfort and shame

Question 43

What are the main principles of equity theory?

Answer 43

Profit
Distribution
Dissatisfaction
Realignment

Question 44

Explain profit in terms of equity theory?

Answer 44

Rewards and maximised and costs minimised

Question 45

Explain distribution in terms of equity theory?

Answer 45

Trade offs and compensations are negotiated to achieve fairness in a relationship

Question 46

Explain dissatisfaction in terms of equity theory?

Answer 46

The greater the degree of perceived unfairness the greater the degree of dissatisfaction

Question 47

Explain realignment in terms of equity theory?

Answer 47

If restoring equity is possible maintenance will continue with attempts made to realign equity

Question 48

What are the 2 consequences of inequity?

Answer 48

Changes in perceived equity
Dealing with inequity

Question 49

Explain the consequence of inequality: changes in perceived equity?

Answer 49

At the start of a relationship it may feel perfectly natural to contribute more than you receive
However, if this continues then in the long term they will not feel as satisfying as the early days

Question 50

Explain the consequence of inequality: Dealing with inequities?

Answer 50

the relationship is able to be saved the partner who is putting more effort in will work hard to save the relationship
The cognitive approach would argue that we revise our expectations of benefits and costs even if nothing has actually changed

Question 51

What are the positive evaluations of equity theory?

Answer 51

Supporting research

Question 52

What are the negative evaluations of equity theory

Answer 52

Cultural differences
Cultural studies
Individual differences
Types of relationships

Question 53

Explain the positive evaluation of Equity Theory: Supporting Research

Answer 53

• More valid than SET- Utne et al. (1984) conducted a survey of 118 recently married couples, measuring equity using two self-report scales.
• Aged 16-45, more than two years of relationship before marriage.
• Results indicated that couples who considered their relationship
equitable were more satisfied.
• Hatfield (1989) looked at people who felt over-or under-benefited. The under-benefited felt angry and deprived, while the over- benefited felt guilty and uncomfortable.

Question 54

Explain the negative evaluation of Equity Theory: cultural differences

Answer 54

Such ‘economic’ theories may only apply to Western relationships and even then only to certain short-term relationships among individuals with high mobility.
Eg students in Western societies. They are typically very mobile and experience many short-term romantic relationships. Where there is little time to develop long-term commitment, it makes sense to be concerned with give-and-take.
However, long-term relationships within other less mobile population groups, particularly in non-traditional societies, are more likely to value security than personal profit.

Question 55

Explain the negative evaluation of Equity Theory: Individual differences

Answer 55

Huseman et al. (1987) suggested that some people are less sensitive to equity than others. He suggested that there were 2 types of people
- Benevolents: prepared to contribute more than they get out
- Entitleds: who believe they deserve to be over benefitted and accept it without feeling distressed or guilty.

Question 56

Explain the negative evaluation of Equity Theory: Types of Relationships

Answer 56

• We should distinguish between different types of relationships.
• Research supports the view that equity plays a central role in causal
friendships, work relationships and acquaintanceships.
• In terms of romantic relationships, the evidence is mixed.

• Berg and McQuinn (1986) - equity did not increase in their longitudinal study of dating couples
• ET does not distinguish between relationships that ended or continued- self-disclosure does

Question 57

Which part of the evaluations of investment model could be used to evaluate the role of alternatives in relationships?

Answer 57

The study that says that there is commitment to a relationship when satisfaction and investment is high and when alternative are a bit lower. Since it is only a bit lower is shows that alternatives many not play that much of a role in relationships.

Question 58

To do with the investment model what happened in 2011?
Explain fully?

Answer 58

In 2011 Rusbult et al argued that the main psychological factor which causes people to stay in a relationship isn’t satisfaction but is commitment
Rusbult originally said that all 3 factors were the equally important

Question 59

How are the relationship development stages linked to SET?

Answer 59

The relationship development stageswere used by Thibaut and Kelly to show SET in action