Paper 3 - Relationships - Factors Effecting Attraction

Question 1

What are the 3 main factors which effect attraction?

Answer 1

Self disclosure
Psychical attractiveness
Filter theory

Question 2

What is self disclosure?

Answer 2

Self disclosure - involves recalling personal information about yourself
Romantic partners tend to revel more about their true selves as the relationship developes
These. Revelations can strengthen the relationship i used appropriately

Question 3

Explain social penetration theory?

Answer 3

By Altman and Taylor (1973)
Relationships are gradual way of revealing your inner self to someone
Romantic relationships involve the exchange of personal info which leads to a deeper understanding of each others lives. - there are 2 elements of this idea: breadth and Depth

Altman and Taylor use an Onion metaphor:
Early on in a relationship we share low risk info and gradually more high risk info comes out as the relationship progresses.

Question 4

Explain how a study showed how the reciprocity of self disclosure is important?

Answer 4

Reis and Shaver (1988)
There tends to be a balance of self disclosure in successful romantic relationship as well as breadth and depth
After disclosing info, you want your partner to respond in a rewarding way, with understanding and empathy
This should increase intimacy and deepens the relationship

Question 5

What are the factors that effect how disclosure effects attraction?

Answer 5

Appropriateness of disclosure
Who we disclose to
Gender differences
Content of disclosure

Question 6

Explain how the appropriateness of the disclosure can effect attractiveness?

Answer 6

Appropriateness of the disclosure:
Sometimes disclosing personal info can be inappropriate. More attractive people may socially aware to these social norms

Question 7

How does who we disclose to effects attraction?

Answer 7

Attributions for the disclosure: (who do you sell to)
Less attraction occurs if a person thinks that the other person disclosed personal info to lots of people. So more attraction occurs if we think that the info they have shared is only with a few people

Question 8

How does the gender effect how self disclosure will effect attraction

Answer 8

Gender difference:
Women are generally seen as better communicators and are more interested in intimate info, so self disclosure by males may be seen as less appropriate than those by females
Alternately self disclosure by a man may make a women feel special

Question 9

How does the content of self disclosure effect attraction?

Answer 9

Content of disclosure:
Disclosure of highly intimate info may be seen as inappropriate and as violating social norms, especially if a relationship is in its earlier stages which could decrease attraction
Attraction is at its strongest when self disclosure is of moderate intimacy and weaker when too high or low

Question 10

What are the positive evaluations of Self disclosure being an important factor in attraction?

Answer 10

Support from research studies
Laurenceau (2005)
Real life applications (communications)

Question 11

What are the negative evaluations of self disclosure being an important factor for attraction

Answer 11

Cultural differences
Self disclosure and satisfaction
Individual differences
Reductionism
Correlation vs Causation

Question 12

Explain the positive evaluation of self disclosure: support from research studies

Answer 12

• Several predictions about self-disclosure derived from the social penetration theory have been supported by research.
• Sprecher and Hendrick (2004) studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong positive correlations between several measures of relationship satisfaction and self- disclosure (both theirs and their partners).

Question 13

Explain the positive evaluation of self disclosure: Laurenceau (2005)

Answer 13

• Used a method that involved writing daily diary entries. They found that self-disclosure in a partner were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long-term married couples.
• The reverse was also true – less intimate couples self-disclosed less often.
• This supportive evidence increases the validity of the theory that self- disclosure leads to more satisfying relationships.

Question 14

What is the name of the study that can be used as a positive evaluation of self disclosure

Answer 14

Laurenceau (2005)

Question 15

Explain the positive evaluation of self disclosure: Real life applications - communications

Answer 15

• Research into self-disclosure can help people who want to improve communication in their relationships. Romantic partners probably use self-disclosure deliberately and skilfully from time to time to increase intimacy and strengthen the bond.
• Hass and Stafford (1998) found that 57% of gay men and women said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained their relationships. This finding demonstrates the value of psychological insight (in other words, if people understand how important self-disclosure is, they may be more likely to do it!)

Question 16

Explain the negative evaluation of self disclosure: Cultural differences

Answer 16

Cultural differences tang et al (2013)
• Reviewed research regarding sexual self-disclosure and concluded that men/women in USA disclose significantly more sexual thoughts than men/women in China (individualist Vs collectivist cultures.)
• Both are linked to relationship satisfaction in those cultures. • However: cultural bias.

Question 17

Explain the negative evaluation of self disclosure: Self Disclosure and Satisfaction

Answer 17

• Social Penetration Theory claims that romantic relationships become more intimate as self-disclosures deepen and broaden.
• Using the onion metaphor, relationship breakdown is accompanied by the reduction in self-disclosures.
• However, according to theories of relationship breakdown often recognise how couples discuss and negotiate the state of their deteriorating relationships in an attempt to save it or return it to an earlier level of satisfaction.
• These discussions will frequently involve deep self-disclosures of very intimate thoughts and feelings, and yet these might not be enough to save the relationship. In fact these might even contribute to the breakdown of the relationship.

Question 18

Explain the negative evaluation of self disclosure: Individual differences

Answer 18

• The personality of recipients may be an important factor in whether self-disclosure increases the attractiveness of potential partners.
• Different individuals would have different needs for levels of intimacy in relationships and this would affect how attractive they would find intimate self-disclosures.

Question 19

Explain the negative evaluation of self disclosure: Reductionism

Answer 19

• It is unlikely the attractiveness would be reliant purely on the level/type of self-disclosure.

It is more likely that self-disclosure would interact with other considerations, such as level of physical attractiveness, similarity of interests/attitudes

Question 20

Explain the negative evaluation of self disclosure: Correlation Vs Causation

Answer 20

• Correlational research does not establish a cause. Therefore, it is not a valid conclusion to draw that greater self-disclosure creates more satisfaction (Sprecher & Hendrick, 2004)
• There could be alternative explanations for this correlation

Question 21

Define physical attraction?

Answer 21

The term usually applies specifically to how appealing we find a person’s face. There is a general agreement within and across cultures about what is considered physically attractive

Question 22

What did Shackleford and Larson (1997) find?

Answer 22

found people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have an honest signal of genetic fitness (its hard to fake facial symmetry)
They also found that people are also attracted to baby face features (neotenous). Eg large eyes,delicate chin, and small nose as these features trigger a instinct of protection and caring

Question 23

What did Mcnutly (2008) find?

Answer 23

He found evidence to suggest that physical attractiveness continues to be an important feature of a relationship after marriage, for at least several years

Question 24

What is the halo effect?

Answer 24

This is the belief that what is beautiful is good (normally an unconscious belief)
Physically attractive people are rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
This leads to the self fulfilling prophecy

Question 25

What is the self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 25

The self fulfilling prophecy - the theory that we view attractive people as good and non attractive people bad

Question 26

What does the matching hypothesis say?

Answer 26

The matching hypothesis: Walster et al (1966)
• People choose romantic partners who are roughly of similar physical attractiveness to each other.
• To do this we have to make a realistic (realistic choice) judgement about our own ‘value’ to a potential partner
So we need to balance of our desire for a partner for evolutionary, social and cultural and psychological reasons with being rejected by someone out of our league.

Question 27

What are the positive evaluations of physical attraction?

Answer 27

Research that supports the halo effect
Research support for the matching hypothesis
Role of cultural influences are consistent across cultures

Question 28

What are the positive evaluations of physical attractiveness?

Answer 28

Research supports the halo effect
Research support for the matching hypothesis
Cross cultural evidence

Question 29

What are the negative evaluations of physical attractions

Answer 29

Individual differences
The computer dance study (Walster, 1966)
Contradictory research for the matching hypothesis

Question 30

Explain the positive evaluation for physical attractiveness: research that supports the halo effect?

Answer 30

• Palmer and Peterson (2012) found physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people
• Persisted when people knew that the knowledgeable people had no expertise
• Obvious implications for the political process

Question 31

Explain the negative evaluation for physical attractiveness: individual differences

Answer 31

Not all people place importance on physical attractiveness
• Touhey (1979) asked male and female pp to rate how much they would like a target individual based on their photograph and some biographical information
• Completed a questionnaire to measure sexist attitudes (MACHO Scale, Villemez & Touhey, 1977)
PP who scored highly on the questionnaire, were more influenced by physical attractiveness, when making their judgement on likeability.

Question 32

What research doesn’t support the matching hypothesis

Answer 32

The computer dance study (Walster 1966)

Question 33

Explain the positive evaluation for physical attractiveness: cross cultural evidence

Answer 33

Cunningham et al. (1995)- female features of large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated as highly attractive by White, Hispanic and Asian males.
Wheeler and Kim (1997) – Korean and American students judged physically attractive people to be more trustworthy, concerned for other people, mature and friendly.

Question 34

What is the method in the computer dance study?

Answer 34

A computer dance was advertised in a handbook given to new university students and tickets were sold to 376 men and 376 women.
The people selling the tickets secretly rated each student for attractiveness. The students were not told they were participating in a study. Instead they were told that a computer would match them with a date for the dance who shared their interests. In fact, the participants were paired randomly with somebody of the opposite sex, although no men were paired with taller women.
During the dance the participants filled in a questionnaire about their date. Participants were contacted four to six months later to find out of they’d tried to go on any further dates with their dance date.

Question 35

What were the results of the computer dance study

Answer 35

Participants paired with a similarly attractive partner were not significantly more liked by their date that those paired with a partner with a different attractive rating to them.
Participants who were rated as more attractive were more liked by their date. More attractive participants were also more frequently asked out on further dates than less attractive participants, whereas there was no correlation between similarity in attractiveness in a pair and the number of times participants were asked out again.

Question 36

What were the conclusions of the computer dance study?

Answer 36

The matching hypothesis was not supported- the results showed that people prefer attractive partners regardless of their own attractiveness.

Question 37

What are the positive evaluations of the computer dance study?

Answer 37

The computer dance was quite different from usual dating- the participants did not choose one another and neither of them had to ask each other on a date. The study had low ecological validity.
The way the attractiveness of the participants was judged may mean the results are not reliable.

Question 38

What is the matching hypothesis

Answer 38

The idea that we pick partners that are similar to us
And that we pick people who are attracted to us

Question 39

Explain the positive evaluation of physical attraction: supporting research for the matching hypothesis

Answer 39

Feingold (1988) – meta analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners.
This study is more a realistic approach as they used actual partner

Question 40

Explain the negative evaluation of physical attraction: contradictory research on the matched hypothesis model

Answer 40

• Taylor et al. (2011) studied online dating site date partner choices
• Online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were physically more attractive than them
This does support the MH but not completely because it has low internal validity (catfishing) and demand characteristics

Question 41

What are the components that effect attraction in filter theory?

Answer 41

Proximity
Physical attraction
Competence
Similarity
Complements of needs

Question 42

Explain the factor of filter theory: proximity?

Answer 42

Proximity - people tend to form relationships between people who are geographically close to them. This is due to the increased chance that they will meat and speak to each other

Question 43

Explain the factor of filter theory: physical attraction

Answer 43

how good looking someone is has found to be a massive factor in the likelihood someone is to start a relationship and for success long term

Question 44

Explain the factor of filter theory: competence

Answer 44

how intelligent and competent someone is appears to affect their attractiveness

Question 45

Explain the factor of filter theory: similarity

Answer 45

most people will for a relationship with someone of the same social or cultural background. This can also be the case for internal characteristics

Question 46

Explain the factor of filter theory: complements of needs

Answer 46

we are often attracted to people who can give us wha we lack. A dominating person may be attracted to a submissive person

Question 47

Who created filter theory?

Question 48

What is filter theory?

Answer 48

They imagined a filter
Top - social demographic filter - “field of availability” based on social and demographic factors
Middle - “field of desirables” progression based on attitudes, values
Bottom - fulfilling needs competent each other

They said that when we look for a partner we start with a broad range of potential partners and then we narrow it down using this filter

Question 49

Explain the study supporting filter theory buy?

Answer 49

A survey was done on female and male college students considering marriage
The survey measured personalities, attitudes and their relationship
7 months latter they completed a follow up survey about their relationship progression

They found that Couples who ad been together for more than 18 months were more likely to progress towards marriage if they had similar values
For less than 18 months it was couples who had complementary needs

Question 50

What are the positive evaluations of filter theory?

Answer 50

Support from research

Question 51

Explain the positive evaluation of filter theory: Support from research

Answer 51

• FT assumes key factors change over time which makes sense – face validity
• Winch (1958) found similarities of personality, interests and attitudes are typical in the earliest stages of relationships
• supporting evidence for MH as the study shows that - Between married partners, complementing each other is more important than similarity.

Question 52

What are the negative evaluations of filter theory?

Answer 52

Failure to replicate
Direction of cause and effect
Lack of temporal validity
Similarity or complementary

Question 53

Explain the negative evaluation of filter theory: Lack of temporal validity

Answer 53

• Rise of online dating has reduced the importance of social demographic variables
• Mobile apps like Tinder, have made meeting partners easier than ever
This may lead people to pursue a relationships with someone outside the usual demographic limits (e.g. culture or social class)

Question 54

What is the first filter in filter theory?

Answer 54

Social demographic

Question 55

Explain the filter: social demographic

Answer 55

Our field of choice is narrowed because of our social circumstances (eg class, income)
In this filter anyone “too different” is discounted
The outcome is homogamy (this is when relationships form with people who are socially or cultural similar

Question 56

Explain the negative evaluation of Filter theory: Failure to replicate

Answer 56

• Levinger (1974) pointed out many studies have failed to replicate the original findings that formed the basis of filter theory.
• Choosing 18 month cut off point to distinguish between short/long-term relationships. They assumed those who had been together longer were more committed and had a deeper relationship however, this was shown not to be true shown by Rusbults Investment model

Question 57

Explain the negative evaluation of Filter theory: Direction of cause and effect

Answer 57

• FT suggests people are initially attracted to each other because they are similar
• Anderson et al. (2003) found cohabiting partners became more similar in their emotional responses over time, a phenomenon called emotional convergence
• Davis and Rusbult (2001) discovered an attitude alignment effect in longer-term relationships.
They are both arguing the possibility that we either are attracted to people because we are emotionaly similar to them or that we become emotionally similar over time in our relationships.

Question 58

Explain the negative evaluation of Filter theory: Similarity or Complementary

Answer 58

• Anderson et al. (2003) found that similarity increases over time, suggesting that complementing each other is not necessarily a feature of longer-term relationships
• Gruber-Baldini et al. (1995) conducted a longitudinal study of married couples
- Similarities were found between spouses in terms of intellectual abilities and attitudinal flexibility increased over a 14 year period. Since the couples are becoming more alike it shos that complementary attitudes are not needed.

Question 59

Explain the filter: similarity in attitudes
Include supporting evidence

Answer 59

More important for couples who had been together for less than 18 months
It is better to agree over basic values as it encourages greater and deeper communication and promotes self disclosure
Byrne (1997) - “law of attraction”
Byrne found consistent findings to suggest that similarity of attitudes encourage a relationship to flourish
And a positive correlation between the proportion of attitudes associated with a person and an attraction to that person

Question 60

Explain the filter: complementary

Answer 60

This may be more important for long term couples
Some complementary trates may be nurturing, being funny personality
Eg some people may want a more dominant partner even though they are submissive