paper 3 - 2022

Question 1

define determinism

Answer 1

the view that an individual’s behavior is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something

Question 2

define hard determinism

Answer 2

the view that all behavior is caused by something, so free will is illusion

Question 3

define soft determinism

Answer 3

the view that behavior may be predictable but there is also room for personal choice from a limited range of possibilities

Question 4

define biological determinism

Answer 4

the belief that behavior is caused by biological influences that we cannot control.
eg. autonomic nervous system on stress and genes on mental health

Question 5

define environmental determinism

Answer 5

the belief that behavior is caused by features of the environment that we cannot control
skinner - conditioning and reinforcing through our live time

Question 6

define psychic determinism

Answer 6

the belief that behavior is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that we cannot control

Freud - free will illusion - human behavior is influenced by unconscious conflict repressed in childhood - Freudian slip (no such thing as an accident)

Question 7

evaluation of determinism - the law

Answer 7

limitation - position of the legal system on responsibility
hard determinism stance - individual choice doesn’t cause of behavior
this not consistent in the which our legal system works
in law offenders are held responsible for their actions
main principle of law is that the defendant exercised their free will to commit crime
therefore the determinism argument doesn’t work in real world.

Question 8

determinism evaluation - helped to establish psychology as a science

Answer 8

by adopting methods of natural sciences to produce general laws of human behavior.
also led to the development of behaviorism.
also hard determinism has effective real world application in drug therapies and treatment for mental health issues e.g. flooding for phobias

Question 9

define free will

Answer 9

the notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by biological or external forces

the humanist approach embraces the concept of free will

Question 10

strength of free will - practical value

Answer 10

the common-sense view is that we exercise free choice in our everyday lives on a daily basis. however, even if this is not the case, thinking we do exercise free choice can improve our mental health.
a study looked at adolescents who had a strong belief in fatalism (lives were controlled by external forces) and found that these adolescents were at significantly greater risk of developing depression.
it seems that people who exhibit an external, rather than internal LOC are less likely to be optimistic.
this suggests that, even if we do have free will, the fact that we believe we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour.

Question 11

the scientific emphasis on causal relationships

Answer 11

basic principles of science is that every event in the universe has a cause and that causes can be explained using general laws
knowledge of causes and the formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events in the future.
the lab experiment is the ideal of science as it enables researchers to demonstrate causal relationships

Question 12

define ethical implication

Answer 12

the consequence of any research in terms of the effects on individuals participants or on the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded.

Question 13

ethical guideline for research

Answer 13

Consent
Deception
Debriefing
Withdrawal
Confidentiality
Protection of participants

Can do can’t do with participants

Question 14

implications for research process - social sensitivity

Answer 14

research question = warn the phrasing and investigation may influence the findings. e.g. heterosexual bias = judged against heterosexual norms

dealing with participants = informed consent, confidentiality, psychological harm. e.g sexual abuse victims

findings use = consider in advance, scientific credence to existing prejudice.

Question 15

strength of social sensitivity - benefits for groups

Answer 15

can have benefits for the group who have been studied
e.g. homosexuality - in 1950’s the DSM-1 listed this as a sociopathic personality disorder but finally removed it in 1970’s.
this change has been credited to the Kinsey report which based on anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviour. this report concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour.
the report also included data on interviews with 6000 women and caused outrage at the time because these were topics that no-one discussed.
this illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are sensitive

Question 16

counterpoint of social sensitivity - benefits for groups

Answer 16

however in some studies there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied, which in some cases could have been anticipated
e.g. research investigating the genetic basis of criminality has found that there is a criminal gene.
if this is true does it mean that someone could be convicted on the basis that they have such a gene or should they be excused because they cannot be held responsible for any wrongdoing.
this suggests that, when researching socially sensitive topics, there is a need for very careful consideration of the possible outcomes and their consequences.

Question 17

another strength of social sensitivity - real world application

Answer 17

certain groups rely on research related to socially sensitive issues
the government looks to research when developing important social policies, e.g. decisions related to child care, education, mental health provision, crime and so on.
it is clearly preferable to base such policies on scientific research rather than politically motivated views.
for this reason in the UK there are independent groups such as ONS who describe themselves as being responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about the UK economy, society and population. such data is used in psychological research.
this means that psychologists have an important role to play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics

Question 18

limitation of social sensitive research processes - poor research design

Answer 18

poor research design may lead to erroneous findings which, once in the public area, continue to have an impact
this was certainly the case in relation to Burt’s research were he suggested that intelligence was heritable and could be detected at 11 years old. This is because, even after the fraud was exposed, the 11+ continued to be used and is still used today as a selection tool in parts of the UK.
similarly, access to many independent schools is based on a child’s performance in an entrance exam taken in year 6 and is likely based on the same reasoning - that genetic potential has revealed itself by this age.
therefore, any research on socially sensitive topics need to be planned with the greatest care to ensure findings are valid because of the enduring effects on particular groups of people

Question 19

define idiographic

Answer 19

an approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.
e.g. case studies or small samples

Question 20

idiographic approach - qualitative research

Answer 20

small group of individuals interviewed in depth and focus may be on a particular facet of human behaviour (unstructured interview + case study)
such data is then analysed and emerged themes are identified
conclusions may help other people going through similar experiences widely

Question 21

ideographic approach - examples in psychology

Answer 21

associated with humanistic and psychodynamic approaches

e. g. Roger = sought to explain the process of self-development including the role of unconditional positive regards - in-depth conversations with clients in therapy
e. g. Freud = observations of individuals were basis of his explanations of human nature, - little hans +phobias

Question 22

define nomothetic approach

Answer 22

aims to study human behaviour through development of general principles and universal laws

Question 23

nomothetic approach - quantitative research

Answer 23

closely fits traditional models of the scientific methods in psychology
hypotheses are formulated, samples of people are assessed in some way, and numerical data produced is analysed for its statistical significance.
seek to quantify human behaviour

Question 24

nomothetic approach - examples in psychology

Answer 24

behaviourist and biological approaches (though they sometimes use small samples)

e. g. Skinner = studied animals and develop the general law of learning - study looked at one aspect of human behaviour but aimed to establish general laws
e. g. sperry = split-brain research which involved repeated testing and the basis for understanding hemispheric lateralisation

Question 25

objective versus subjective - idiographic and nomothetic approaches

Answer 25

nomothetic approach = objectivity - laws of behaviour are only possible if methods of assessment are delivered in a standardized and objective way. - ensure true replication occurs across sample of behaviour and removes the contaminating influence of bias idiographic approach = don't believe in objectivity - people's individual experiences of their unique context that is important, rather than some underlying reality out there that is waiting to be discovered.

Question 26

strength of the idiographic approach - complete account

Answer 26

+ contributed to the nomothetic approach uses in-depth qualitative methods of investigation and this provides a global description of one individual. this may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws. for example, a single case may generate hypotheses for further study. for example, cases like HM may reveal important insight about normal functioning which may contributed to out overall understanding. this suggests that even though the focus is one a fewer individuals, the idiographic approach may still help form scientific laws of behaviour.

Question 27

counterpoint to complete account - idiographic approach

Answer 27

that said, supporter of the idiographic approach should still knowledge the narrow restricted nature of their work. meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as this means there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour. in addition, methods associated with the idiographic approach, such as case studies, tend to be the least scientific in that conclusions often rely on subjective interpretation of the researcher and as such are open to bias. this suggest that it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in the complete absence of nomothetic approach.

Question 28

strength of the nomothetic and ideographic approaches - scientific credibility

Answer 28

both approaches fit with the aims of science the processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those used in the natural sciences, for example establishing objectivity through standardisation, control and statistical testing. however, researcher using the idiographic approach also seek to objectify their methods for example, using triangulation is used whereby findings from a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared as a way of increasing their validity. also modern qualitative researchers are careful yo reflect upon their own biases and preconceptions as part of the research process this suggest that both nomothetic and idiographic approaches raise psychology's status as a science

Question 29

limitation of the nomothetic approach - losing the person

Answer 29

loss of understanding of the individual preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of losing the whole person within psychology. for example, knowing that there is 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone who has been diagnosed with the disorder. understanding the subjective experience of schizophrenia might well prove useful when it comes to devising appropriate treatment options for example this means, in its search for generalities, the nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to experience

Question 30

definition - social exchange theory

Answer 30

the theory of how relationships form and develop. it assumes that romantic partners act out of self-interest in exchanging rewards and costs. a satisfying and committed relationship is maintained when rewards exceed costs and potential alternatives are less attractive than the current relationship

Question 31

rewards, cost and profits - social exchange theory

Answer 31

proposed by Thibault and Kelley relationship reflects the economic assumptions of exchange - min losses and max gains satisfaction is based on profit it yields cost and rewards are subjective - very wide range of possible outcomes e.g. value of cost and rewards may change throughout the relationship or one partner may see the value of a reward as higher than the other. reward - thing beneficial to the relationship e.g. sex and emotional support

Question 32

Blau - social exchange theory

Answer 32

relationships can be expensive, so costs include time, stress, energy, compromise and so on relationships incurs another kind of cost - opportunity cost - your invested time and energy in current relationship means using resources that you cannot invest elsewhere

Question 33

comparison level - social exchange theory

Answer 33

the amount of reward you believe you deserve to get - develops from previous experience and relationships - also influenced by social norms that determine what is the reasonable level of rewards - change with time - when a relationship is worth pursuing if our CL is high - link high self-esteem low self esteem = Low CL = satisfied with less profit from the relationship.

Question 34

comparison levels of alternatives - social exchange theory

Answer 34

provides context for the relationship could we gain greater rewards and fewer cost from another relationship? SET predict that we stay in our current relationship only long as we believe that it is more rewarding than the alternative. duck = the CLalt we adopt will depend on the state of our current relationship, when rewards outweigh the cost of our relationship then alternative seem less attractive

Question 35

stages of the relationship - social exchange theory

Answer 35

SET concerns 4 stage through a relationship develops 1. sampling stage = we explore the rewards and costs if social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationship or by observing others 2. bargaining stage = this marks the beginning of the relationship, start exchanging various costs and rewards, negotiating and identifying profitability 3. commitment stage = sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship become more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen 4. institutionalisation stage = the partners are now settled down because the norms of the relationship, in terms of rewards and costs are firmly established

Question 36

strength of SET - research support

Answer 36

psychologist asked gay, lesbian and heterosexual couples to complete questionnaires measuring relationship commitment and SET variables found that those partners that were the most committed also perceived the most rewards and fewer costs and viewed alternatives as relatively unattractive most importantly this was the first study was to demonstrate that the main SET concepts that predict commitment are independent of each other these findings match predictions from SET, strongly confirming the validity of the theory in gay and lesbians relationships as well as in heterosexual partners

Question 37

counterpoint of research support for SET

Answer 37

studies into SET ignore one crucial factor that may be an overwhelming consideration for romantic partners - equity the neglect of equity means that SET is a limited explanation which cannot account for a significant proportion of research findings on relationships

Question 38

weakness of SET - Direction of cause and effect

Answer 38

claim that dissatisfaction arises only after a relationship stops being profitable and the alternatives are more attractive but some psychologists argue that we don't monitor costs and rewards, or consider alternatives until after we are dissatisfied. when we are satisfied with a relationship and committed to it, we do not even notice potentially attractive alternatives this suggest that considering costs/alternatives is caused by dissatisfaction rather than the reverse.

Question 39

Weakness of SET - vague concepts

Answer 39

rewards and costs have been defined superficially in research in order to measure them. but real world psychological rewards and cost are subjective and hard to define for example, most people would consider having your partners loyalty to be rewarding but rewards and cost vary across people and even having loyalty is not a reward for everyone. the concept of comparison levels is especially problematic. it is unclear what the values of CL and CLalt must be before dissatisfaction threatens a relationship this means the theory is difficult to test in a valid way

Question 40

define equity theory

Answer 40

an economic theory of how relationships develop. as such it acknowledges the impact of rewards and costs on relationship satisfaction but criticises social exchange theory for ignoring the central role of equity the perception that partners have about whether the distribution of reward and costs in the relationship is fair.

Question 41

the role of equity

Answer 41

equity = fairness Walster = what matter most with equity is that both partners' level of profit is roughly the same. lack of equity = 1 over benefits and 1 under benefits from the relationship leading to dissatisfaction under benefits = feel greater dissatisfaction in the form of anger, hostility, resentment … over benefits = will likely feel guilty, discomfort, and shame thus satisfaction is about perceived fairness.

Question 42

equity and equality

Answer 42

not the size or amount of the rewards and cost that matters, its the ratio of the two to each other. satisfied = put a lot in and get a lot out e.g. domestic task don't need to be shared equally but with equity to what they can do e.g. nightshift cant cook dinner. equity comes from compensations and negotiations that ensure rewards are shared fairly. inevitably involves making trade offs

Question 43

consequence of inequity

Answer 43

distress and dissatisfaction with the relationship if it continues for long enough greater inequity = greater dissatisfaction (correlation) applies to both the over and under benefitting partner. 1. changes in perceived equity 2. dealing with inequity

Question 44

changes in perceived equity

Answer 44

what makes us the most dissatisfied is a change in the level of perceived equity as time goes on. start of relationship = natural to contribute more than you receive but if the relationship continues like this (more in than out) then you become less satisfied than you did in the beginning

Question 45

dealing with inequaity

Answer 45

under benefiting partner = motivated to make the relationship more equitable as long as they believe it is possible and the relationship is salvageable - the more unfair the relationship the less easy it is to restore possible outcome is cognitive rather than behavioural = revise their perception of rewards and costs so the relationship feel more equitable to them what was see as a cost a the beginning of the relationship is now accepted as the norm e.g. untidiness, thoughtlessness or even abuse

Question 46

strength of equity theory - research support

Answer 46

studies of real world relationships confirm that equity theory is a more valid explanation than SET. survey of 118 recently married couples, measuring equity with two self report scales. participants aged 16 to 45 and had been together for 2 years before marrying the researchers found that the couples who considered a their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who saw themselves as under benefiting or over benefiting. - confirms that equity is a major concern of romantic couples and is linked with satisfaction, a central prediction of equity theory.

Question 47

counterpoint of research support as a strength of equity theory

Answer 47

equity may be a feature of satisfaction in relationships found that equity didn't increase over time, as would also be predicted by the theory. nor did the researchers find that relationships which ended and those which continued differed in terms of equity, a future prediction of equity theory. other variables such as self-disclosure were more significantly more important this undermines the validity of equity theory because equity does not play the role in relationship satisfaction that is predicted

Question 48

weakness of equity theory - cultural limitations

Answer 48

may not apply to all cultures found that there are cultural differences in the link between equity and satisfaction individualist cultures = considered their relationships most satisfying when the relationship was equitable collectivist cultures = were most satisfied when they were over-benefiting (both genders = so cannot be explained by gender differences) this suggests that the theory is limited because it only applies to some cultures

Question 49

weakness of equity theory - individual differences

Answer 49

not all partners in romantic relationships are concerned about achieving equity psychologists suggest that some people are less concerned by equity than the norm they describe some partners as benevolents who are prepared to contribute more (under-benefit) others as entitleds who believe they deserve to over-benefit and accept it with no feeling of distress. in both cases individuals are less concerned about equity than the theory predicts. - this shows a desire for equity varies from one individual to another and is not a universal feature of romantic relationships.

Question 50

define commitment (in a relationship)

Answer 50

a romantic partner's intention or desire to continue a relationship, reflecting a belief that the relationship has a variable long term future.

Question 51

define satisfaction (in a relationship)

Answer 51

the extent to which romantic partners feel the rewards of a relationship exceed the costs

Question 52

define comparison with alternatives

Answer 52

a judgement that partners make concerning whether a relationship with different partner would bring more rewards or fewer costs

Question 53

define investment

Answer 53

the resource associated with a romantic relationship which partners would loose if their relationship were to end.

Question 54

Rusbult's investment model - initial ideas

Answer 54

commitment is effected by 3 factors = satisfaction, investment and comparison of alternatives develop on SET ideas

Question 55

Rusbult's investment model - satisfaction

Answer 55

based on SET idea of comparison of alternatives satisfying relationships judged by comparing rewards and costs seen as profitable if it has many rewards and few costs generally satisfied when they are getting more out of the relationship than expected based on previous experiences and social norms

Question 56

Rusbult's investment model - comparison with alternatives

Answer 56

results in romantic partners asking themselves - could my needs be better meet outside my current relationship. are the alternatives more rewarding or less costly alternatives include not just relationships with other people but the possibility of having no romantic relationships

Question 57

Rusbult's investment model - investment

Answer 57

CL and CLalt not enough to explain commitment or relationships would end as soon costs outweighed rewards or attractive alternatives presented themselves suggests crucial 3 factor - investment = anything we could lose if the relationship were to end 1. intrinsic investment = any resources we put directly into the relationship: can be tangible e.g. money or processions but they can also be less easy to quantify such as energy, emotions or self closure. 2. extrinsic investments = are resources that previously didn't feature in the relationship, but are now closely associated e.g. mutual friends, children and shared memories

Question 58

Rusbult's investment model - satisfaction versus commitment

Answer 58

commitment = psychological factors that cause people to stay in a romantic relationship satisfaction = a contributing factor to commitment important distinction as it explains why a dissatisfied partner may stay in a relationship. as they are committed because they have made an investment that they do not want to waste therefore, they will work hard to maintain and repair a damaged relationship, especially when it hits a hard spot

Question 59

Rusbult's investment model - relationship maintenance mechanisms

Answer 59

commitment can express itself in everyday maintenance behaviour. according to the model enduring partners do not engage in tit for tat retaliation but instead promote the relationship. also put partners interest first and forgive them for serious transgressions cognitive element of relationship maintenance and repair. committed partners think about each other and potential alternatives in a specific way. unrealistic positive about their partner and negative about tempting alternatives and other people's relationships much more than less committed partners

Question 60

strength of Rusbult's investment model - research support

Answer 60

investment model support from a meta-analysis - le and agnew reviewed 52 studied in 90's which included 11,000 participants from 5 countries found that satisfaction, comparison of alternatives and investment size all predicted relationship commitment. relationships in which commitment was greatest were the most stable and lasted the longest. outcomes were true for both man and women, across all cultures and for homosexual as well as heterosexual relationships. validity to Rusbults claim that these factors are universally important feactures in romantic relationships.

Question 61

counterpoint of research support for Rusbult's investment model

Answer 61

strong correlation has been found between all the important factors predicted by the investment model. e.g. le and agnew's meta-analysis were correlational. don't allow us to conclude that the factors identified by the model cause commitment in a relationship. could be more than committed you feel towards your partner, the more investment you are willing to make in the relationship, so the direction of causality may be the reverse of that suggested by the model. therefore, it is not clear that the model has identified the cause of commitment rather than factors that are associated with it.

Question 62

strength of Rusbult's investment model - explains abusive relationships

Answer 62

model is an explanation of relationships that involve intimate partner violence Rusbult and Martz studied domestic abused women at a shelter and found that those most likely to return to an abusive partner reported having made the greatest investment and having the fewest attractive alternatives these women were dissatisfied with their relationships but were still committed to them. therefore the model shows that satisfaction on its own cannot explain why people stay in relationships - commitment and investments are also factors

Question 63

weakness of Rusbult's investment model - oversimplifies investment

Answer 63

views investment in a simplistic one-dimensional way Goodfriend and Agnew point out that there is more to investment than just the resources you have already put in a relationship. in early stages, partners will have made very few actual investments Goodfriend and Agnew extended the model to include the investment partners make in their future plans. motivated to commit to each other because they want to see their cherished plans for the future work out. this means the original model is limited because it fails to recognise the true complexity of investments, especially how how planning for the future influence commitment

Question 64

define phase model of relationship breakdown

Answer 64

an explanation of the stages people go through when a relationship is not working. once one of the partners is dissatisfied, there are 4 phases in the process each with different focus; intra-psychic, dyadic, social and grave dressing

Question 65

steve Duck model of relationship breakdown

Answer 65

An explanation of the stages people got through when their relationship is not working. Once one partner is dissatisfied, there are four phases in the process, each with a different focus: intra psychic, dyadic, social and grave dressing. Duck suggests that the ending of a relationship is a process that takes time and goes through distinct phases that are marked by a threshold.

Question 66

intra-psychic phase

Answer 66

Threshold: “I can’t stand this anymore” Focus on cognitive processes occurring within the individual. Dissatisfied partner worries about the reasons for their dissatisfaction, centring mostly on their partners shortcomings. Mull over thoughts privately (weigh over pros and cons and evaluate alternatives) and may only share with a trusted friend

Question 67

Dyadic phase

Answer 67

Threshold: “I would be justified in withdrawing” Focus on the interpersonal processes between the two partners – a point where they can longer avoid talking about their relationship. Series of confrontations where dissatisfactions are aired. – characterized by anxiety, hostility, complaints about lack of equity, resentment over imbalanced roles and rethinking commitment. Two outcomes – determination to end the relationship and renewed desire to repair it. If rescue attempts fail the next threefold is reached. Self-disclosure may become deeper and more frequent in this phase

Question 68

social phase

Answer 68

Threshold: “I mean it” Focus on wider processes involving the couple’s social networks. The breakup is made public, and the partners will seek support and try to forge pacts. Mutual friends will be expected to pick a side, and gossip is traded and encouraged. Some friends will prove reinforcement and reassurance whilst other will place the blame on one of the partners. Finally, some will try to repair the relationship. This is usually the point of no return and the breakup take on a momentum driven by social forces.

Question 69

grave dressing phase

Answer 69

Focus on the aftermath. Relationship is dead, so a favorable story about the breakup is created for public consumption to allow it to be buried. – this allows the partners maintain a positive reputation but usually at the expense of the other partner. Gossip is important in this phase, and it is crucial that each partner tries to retain some social credit by blaming anything but themselves. Also involves creating a personal story that they can live with that may differ from the public one. This is to do with tidying up the memories of the relationship and a degree of rewriting history. Traits that were once endearing become reinterpreted in a much more negative fashion. In the end they will reach the threshold of “time to get a new life”.

Question 70

strength of ducks theory - real world application

Answer 70

P – one strength of the model is that it suggests ways in which relationships breakdown can be reversed. E – this model is useful because it recognizes that different repair strategies are more effective are some points in the breakdown than at others. E – for example, duck recommend that people in the intra physic phase could be encouraged to focus on their worrying on the positive aspects of their partner. Also, as a feature of the dyadic phase is communication, any attempt to improve this and wider social skills could be beneficial in fostering greater stability in the relationship L – these insights can be used in relationship counselling to help people through difficult times. Therefore, Duck’s model is beneficial as it has real world application

Question 71

counterpoint of real world application of ducks model

Answer 71

P – however, an issue with the Duck’s phase model is that it has a cultural bias affecting it ability to be applied to the real world. E – this is because the model is based on research into relationships breakdowns in individualist cultures, especially the US. According to Moghaddam et al relationships in individualist cultures are generally voluntary and frequently come to an end. E – But relationships in collectivist cultures are less easy to end and involve the wider family. In fact, the whole conception of a romantic relationship differs between cultures. L – this means the model’s application would not be useful in all cultures, as it struggles to explain the breakdown of relationships in collectivist cultures.

Question 72

limitation of duck's model - an incomplete model

Answer 72

P- one limitation is that the original model described is an incomplete explanation of breakdowns. E- Duck and Rollie added a fifth phase after grave dressing called the resurrection phase. This is where Ex-partners apply the experience gain from the recently ended relationships to future relationships. E- the researchers also argued that progression from one phase to the next is not inevitable because it is possible to return to an earlier point at any point in any phase. Finally, the processes that occur in relationship breakdown are more important than linear movement from one phase to the next. L- Therefore, the original model does not account for the complexity of breakdown and its dynamic nature.

Question 73

limitation of ducks model - early phases are less understood

Answer 73

another limitation of the model is that it underexplains the early phases of breakdown. this is because much of the research is retrospective. participants in studies generally report their experiences some time after the relationship has ended, so what they recall might not always be accurate early phase occur longer ago. partners can be in the intra-psychic phase for a long time so recall it may be particularly distorted. this means that the model may not explain the early parts of the breakdown as well as the later phases.

Question 74

define self disclosure

Answer 74

revealing personal information about yourself. Romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as their relationship develops. These self-disclosures about one’s deepest thoughts and feelings can strengthen a romantic bond when used appropriately.

Question 75

define absence of gating

Answer 75

face to face relationships often fail to form because of obstacles such as facial disfigurement that some people might find off putting. These barriers or gates are absent in the virtual world allowing relationships to begin when they might not offline

Question 76

self disclosure in virtual relationships

Answer 76

self disclosure is a crucial feactures of face to face relationships in the offline world. in recent years researchers have turned their attention to the role of self-disclosure in social media based relationships. how does self-disclosure operate in virtual relationships?

Question 77

reduced cues theory

Answer 77

Sproull and Kiesler – virtual relationships are less effective than FTF ones because they lack cues, we normally depend on in FTF interactions. Non-verbal cues and cues on our emotional state Reduces a person’s sense of individual identity in virtual relationships (deindividuation) leading to disinhibition allow people to feel free to communicate in a blunt / harsh tone. Less likely to do disclosure to someone who is impersonal

Question 78

the hyper-personal model

Answer 78

Joseph Walther – virtual relationships can be more personal and involve greater disclosure than FTF ones As virtual relationships develop quicker so self-disclosure happens earlier leading to more intense and inmate relationships 1. selective self presentation - greater control over the self-disclosure and cues they send in messages than in FTF situations. This allows the sender to manipulate their image to present themselves in the best light. Self-disclosure can be both hyper-honest and or hyper-dishonest 2. receiver - gains a positive impression of the sender leading to feedback that positively reinforces the sender’s selective self-presentation Bargh et al – point out the ‘stranger on the train effect in FTF relationships that promote Online self-disclosure and what makes virtual relationships the hyper personal is anonymity. This means when FTF when you know other people know your identity so feel more accountable for your behavior. So disclose more to a stranger than normal.

Question 79

effects if absence of gating in virtual relationships - what is a gate

Answer 79

* McKenna and Bargh – a gate is an obstacle to forming a relationship. * FTF relationships are gated as it involves many feature that can interfere with the early development of a relationship. * Examples – physical unattractiveness, low confidence and a stammer.

Question 80

effects if absence of gating in virtual relationships - benefits and drawbacks

Answer 80

In virtual relationship most of these gates are absent. This allows self -disclosure to develop to a point where it is more frequent and deeper. Therefore, the relationship can get further than if it was developed FTF. Absence of gating works by refocusing attention on self-closure and away from superficial features. So, in virtual relationships you are more interest in what they tell you. A benefit of gates being absent is that individuals feel freer to be themselves. However, a negative is that a handful of people may create untrue identities and deceive people in a way which would not be possible in FTF interactions (can change age, gender, extravert levels)

Question 81

limitation of reduced cues theory - lack of support for reduced cues

Answer 81

Limitation - online non-verbal cues are different rather than absent • people online interact with other cues such as style and timing of messages •E.g., taking time to reply to a social media status update may be more intimate than an immediate response but taking to long may show a disinterest. •Acronyms, emoticons and emojis can also be used as effective substitutes for facial expressions and tone of voice. •Therefore, the reduced cue theory fails to explain these differences in cues in virtual relationships.

Question 82

limitation of hyper-personal model - lack of support

Answer 82

Limitation – challenged by findings from meta -analysis Ruppel et al – meta-analysis of 25 studies – comparing FTF and virtual interactions Found that in self report studies the frequency, breadth and depth of self-disclosure was greater in FTF relationships. Although – experimental studies found no difference between FTF and virtual relationship in terms of self-disclosure. This contradicts the models view that that greater the intimacy of virtual relationships should lead to more and deeper self-disclosure than in FTF

Question 83

strength of absence of gating - support

Answer 83

Strength – shy, lonely and socially anxious people find virtual relationships especially valuable. McKenna and Bargh - looked at online communication by shy, lonely and socially anxious people and found that these people were able to express their truest self in FTF situations. Of romantic relationships formed initially online by shy people 71% survived 2 years whereas when formed in the real world only 49% survived 2 years. This suggests that shy people do benefit online presumably because the gating that obstructs FTF relationships in absent online.

Question 84

psychological explanation of schizophrenia - titles

Answer 84

family disfunction - tries to link schizophrenia to childhood and adult experiences of living in a dysfunctional family (the schizophrenogenic mother + double-blind theory + expressed emotion) ``` cognitive explanation (dysfunctional thinking + metarepresentational dysfunction+ central control dysfunction) ```

Question 85

The schizophrenogenic mother

Answer 85

Fromm-Reichmann proposed a psychodynamic explanation for schizophrenia based on the accounts she heard from patients about their childhood. her patient talked of a particular parent which she called the schizophrenogenic mother meaning schizophrenia causing = cold, rejecting and controlling and tends to creates a family climate characterised by tension and secrecy. leads to distrust that later develops into paranoid delusions and ultimately schizophrenia

Question 86

the double blind theory

Answer 86

Bateson - agreed that family climate is important in the development of schizophrenia but emphasised the role of communication style within a family. child - find self trapped in situations where they are in the wrong, mixed messages about what it was, unable to comment on the unfairness or unable to seek clarification. punished with the withdrawal of love left seeing the world as a confusing and dangerous and is reflected in symptoms like disorganised thinking and paranoid delusions. not a cause just a factor of schizophrenia

Question 87

expressed emotion

Answer 87

is the level of emotion, in particular negative emotion, expressed towards a person with schizophrenia by their careers who are often family members. serval elements: - verbal criticism of the person, occasionally accompanied by violence - hostility towards the person, including anger and rejection - emotional overinvolvement in the life of the person, including needless self-sacrifice high level of unexpressed emotions towards them = source of stress and primary explanation for relapse. however as suggests that that it may trigger the onset of schizophrenia in a person who is already vulnerable. = diathesis stress model

Question 88

dysfunctional thinking

Answer 88

- focuses on the role of cognitive processes - Provide possible explanation of schizophrenia as a whole - Schizophrenia provides a disruption to normal thought processing (shown in symptoms) - Reduce thought processing in the ventral striatum associated with negative symptoms - Reduced processing of information in the temporal and cingulate gyri, associated with hallucinations

Question 89

Metarepresentation dysfunction

Answer 89

- Meta-representation = Cognitive ability to reflect on thoughts and behaviors that allows insight into our own intentions and goals - Dysfunction in meta-representative = disrupts our ability to recognize our own thoughts and actions as being their own not someone else’s. - Explain hallucinations and delusions

Question 90

central control dysfunction

Answer 90

- Central control dysfunction = issue with cognitive ability to suppress automatic responses while preforming deliberate actions. - Speech poverty and thought disorder could result from this inability to suppress automatic thought and speech triggers by other thoughts

Question 91

Frith et al

Answer 91

- Identify two kinds of dysfunctional thought processes 1. Meta-representation 2. Central control dysfunction

Question 92

strength of psychodynamic explanation of schizophrenia = research support

Answer 92

evidence linking family dysfunction to schizophrenia indicators of family dysfunctions include insecure attachment and exposure to childhood trauma, especially abuse. one study found that adults with schizophrenia are disproportionately insecure attachments. reported that 69% of women and 59% of men with schizophrenia have a history of physical or sexual abuse. thus strongly suggests that family dysfunction makes people more vulnerable to schizophrenia

Question 93

weakness of the psychodynamic explanation of schizophrenia - explanation lacks support

Answer 93

poor evidence base for any of the explanations. although there is plenty of evidence to support that childhood family-based stress is associated with adult schizophrenia, there is almost none to support the importance of traditional family-based theories such as a schizophrenogenic mother and double blind. both these theories are based on clinical observations of people with schizophrenia and also informal assessments of their mothers' personalities but systematic evidence. this means that family explanations have not been able to account for the link between childhood trauma and schizophrenia.

Question 94

weakness of the psychodynamic explanation of schizophrenia - parent blaming

Answer 94

highly socially sensitivity because it could lead to parent blaming for parents already having to watch their child experience the symptoms of schizophrenia and take responsibility for their care, to be blamed literally adds insult to injury = controversial theory that causes harm

Question 95

strength of the cognitive explanation of schizophrenia - research support

Answer 95

evidence for dysfunctional thinking compared performance on a range of cognitive tasks in 30 people with schizophrenia and a control group of 30 without. task = Stroop task - read the font colours of colour words, so have to suppress the tendency to read the words aloud. found that people with schizophrenia took longer, over twice as long on average, to name font colours. this means that the cognitive processes of people with schizophrenia are impaired.

Question 96

weakness of cognitive explanation of schizophrenia - a proximal explanation

Answer 96

they only explain the proximal origins of symptoms. are proximal explanation because they explain what is happening now to produce symptoms - as distinct from distal explanations which focus on what initially causes the conditions. possible distal explanations are genetic and family disfunction what is currently unclear and not well addresses is how genetic variations and childhood trauma might lead to problems with metarepresentational or central control. this means that cognitive theories on their own only provide partial explanation for schizophrenia

Question 97

define antipsychotics

Answer 97

Antipsychotic = drugs used to reduce the intensity of symptoms, in particular the positive symptoms, of psychotic disorders like schizophrenia.

Question 98

typical antipsychotics

Answer 98

Chlorpromazine – typical antipsychotic - Used to combat positive symptoms e.g., delusions and hallucinations - Used to reduce/block the effect of dopamine - Are a dopamine antagonist as they bind to dopamine receptors (D2), reducing their action and do not stimulate them. - Reduce dopamine in the mesolimbic system in the brain. - Ensuring the postsynaptic cells receive less dopamine, normalizing neurotransmitter levels. also effective sedative - because of it effect on histamine receptors but not truly understood. given to patients to calm them down as the syrup is faster to absorbed than tablets.

Question 99

atypical antipsychotics

Answer 99

Clozapine – atypical antipsychotic - Used to combat positive symptoms but may also benefit negative symptoms - work on the dopamine system but also block serotonin and glutamate receptors - temporarily occupy D2 receptors and then rapidly dissociating it to allow normal dopamine distribution (still receive less dopamine) - have lower level of side effects than typical antipsychotics

Question 100

Risperidone = antipsychotic

Answer 100

recently developed atypical antipsychotic attempt to produce a drug as effective as clozapine without its serious side effects. taken = tablet, injection or syrup lasts for around 2 weeks binds to serotonin and dopamine receptors - binds more strongly to dopamine receptors than clozapine so is more effective in smaller doses also evidence to suggest that has less side effect than other antipsychotics

Question 101

tardive dyskinesia

Answer 101

tardive dyskinesia - side effect of antipsychotics - repetitive involuntary movements cause by long -term or high dose of typical antipsychotics

Question 102

three major differences between typical and atypical antipsychotics

Answer 102

- atypical have less of risk of extrapyramidal side effects such as tardive dyskinesia - research has indicted that atypical have a beneficial effect on negative symptoms - atypical are suitable for a treatment- resistant schizophrenia patient, that is they are more likely to work when typical have failed.

Question 103

strength of antipsychotics - evidence of effectiveness

Answer 103

large body of evidence to support the evidence that both typical and atypical antipsychotics are at least moderately effective in tackling symptoms of Schizophrenia. Thornley = reviewed studies comparing the effects of chlorpromazine to control conditions. data from 13 trials with a total of 1121 participants showed that chlorpromazine was associated with better overall functioning and reduced symptom severity as compared to placebo. Meltzer = clozapine is more effective than typical antipsychotics and other atypical and that it is effective in 30- 50% of treatment resistant cases where typical antipsychotics have failed. this means that, as far as we can tell antipsychotics work.

Question 104

counterpoint to evidence of effectiveness of anti psychotics

Answer 104

Healy = suggests serious flaws with evidence for effectiveness. for example, most studies often are of short term effect only and some successful trials have had their data published multiple times, exaggerating the size of the evidence base for positive effects. also because antipsychotics have powerful calming effects, it is easy to demonstrate that they have some positive effect on people experiencing symptoms of schizophrenia. this is not the same as saying they really reduce the severity of psychosis. this means that the evidence base for antipsychotic effectiveness is less impressive than it first appears.

Question 105

limitation of antipsychotics - serious side effects

Answer 105

typical antipsychotics are associated with a range of side effects including dizziness, agitation, sleepiness, stiff jaw, weight gain, and itchy skin. long term use can result in tardive dyskinesia, which is caused by dopamine super sensitivity and cause involuntary facial movements such as grimacing, blinking and lip smacking. the most serious side effect of antipsychotics is neuroleptic malignant syndrome. this is believed to be caused when drug blocks dopamine action in the hypothalamus, an area in the brain associated with the regulation of a number of body systems. MNS results in high temperature, comas and can even be fatal. Estimates of its frequency range from less than 0.1% to just over 2% this means that antipsychotics can do harm as well as good and individuals who experience these may avoid such treatments

Question 106

CBT

Answer 106

a method of treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioral techniques. From the cognitive viewpoint the therapy aims to develop with thinking such as challenging negative thoughts. The therapy includes behavioral techniques.

Question 107

how to use CBT

Answer 107

- Period of 5 – 20 sessions (Group or individual basis) - Deal with both thoughts and behavior - Help to sense how their irrational thoughts (delusions and hallucinations) impact their feelings and behavior. - Hugely helpful for symptoms like auditory hallucinations e.g hear voices, scared, therapist convince it comes from the malfunctioning speech center, therefore it can’t hurt them, feel less debilitating - Will not eliminate symptoms but help patients to cope with them – reduce distress and improve ability to function adequately - Can also help to teach them that the voice-hearing is an extension of ordinary experience of thinking in words – normalization

Question 108

evaluation of CBT - evidence of effectiveness

Answer 108

Jauhar et al reviewed 34 studies of using CBT with schizophrenia, concluding that there was clear evidence for small but significant effects on both positive and negative symptoms. Other studies found a reduction in frequency and severity of auditory hallucinations Clinical advice from NICE recommends CBT for schizophrenia, this means that both research and clinical experience support the benefits of CBT for schizophrenia

Question 109

evaluation of CBT - quality of effectiveness

Answer 109

limitation of CBT for schizophrenia is the wide range of techniques and symptoms included in studies. CBT techniques and schizophrenia symptoms vary widely from one case to another Thomas point out that different studies have involved the use of different CBT techniques and people with different combinations of positive and negative symptoms. The overall modest benefits of CBT for schizophrenia probably conceal a wide variety of effects of different CBT techniques on different symptoms. This makes it hard to say how effective CBT will be for a particular person with schizophrenia.

Question 110

family therapy

Answer 110

a psychological therapy carried out with all or some members of a family with the aim of improving the communications within the family and reducing the stress of living as a family.

Question 111

family therapy uses

Answer 111

- Improves the quality of communication and interaction between family members - Act on the principles of the psychological theories – double blind and the schizophrenogenic mother

Question 112

pharoah et al - family therapy

Answer 112

identified a range of strategies that family therapists use to try to improve the functioning of a family that has a member with schizophrenia 1. Reduces negative emotions – aims to reduce levels of expressed emotion, generally but especially negative emotions such as anger, guilt that create stress. But reducing stress they also reduce chance of relapse. 2. Improve the family’s ability to help – encourage family members to form therapeutic alliance where they all agree on the aims of therapy. Also aims to improve the family’s belief and behavior around schizophrenia. Finally aims to achieve a balance between caring for someone with schizophrenia and maintaining their own lives

Question 113

family therapy model of practice

Answer 113

Burbach: proposed a model for working with families dealing with schizophrenia - Begins with sharing information, proving emotional and practical support. - Phase 2 = identifying resources family members can(not) offer - Phase 3 = encourage mutual relationships, safe space for all to express emotions - Phase 4 = involves identifying unhelpful patterns of interactions - Phase 5 = training new skills e.g., stress management techniques - Phase 6 = relapse prevention plan - Phase 7 maintenance for the future.

Question 114

evaluation of family therapy - evidence of effectiveness

Answer 114

A review of studies by McFarlane concluded that family therapy was one of the most consistently effective treatment available for schizophrenia Relapse rates were found to reduce by around 50% to 60% McFarlane also concluded that using family therapy as a treatment when mental health starts firsts declining is particularly promising. This is also shown be NICE recommending family therapy for everyone diagnosed with schizophrenia. This means that family therapy is likely to be of benefit to people of starting to suffer with schizophrenia and individual that have had schizophrenia for a long time.

Question 115

family therapy evaluation - benefits the whole family

Answer 115

Therapy is beneficial for the individual struggling with schizophrenia and their family. Lobban and Barrowclough concluded that these effects are important because families provide the bulk of the care for people with schizophrenia. So, by strengthening the functioning of a whole family, family therapy lessens the negative impact of schizophrenia on other family members and strengthen the ability of the family to support the person with schizophrenia. This means that family therapy has wider benefits beyond the obvious positive impact on the identified patient.

Question 116

token economies

Answer 116

a form of behavioral modification, where desirable behaviors are encouraged by the use of selective reinforcement. for example people are given rewards when they engage in socially desirable behaviors. tokens are secondary reinforces and can be exchanged for primary reinforces e.g. food or privileges

Question 117

rationale for token economies

Answer 117

institutionalization develops under circumstances of prolonged hospitalization - develop bad habits. matson et al - 3 categories of institutional behavior commonly tackled by token economies; personal care, condition related behavior and social behavior two major benefits; improve quality of life in hospital and normalizes behavior

Question 118

theoretical understanding of token economies

Answer 118

example of behavioral modification / therapy based on operant conditioning. token = secondary reinforcer exchanged for a primary reinforcers should be administrated together or in a close time period

Question 119

token economies evaluation - ethical issues

Answer 119

professional given considerable power to control behavior of the patient - inevitably involves imposing one person's norms on to others. especially problematic if the target behavior are not identified sensitively. or restrict the amiability of pleasure to people who already experience distressing symptom - legal action from relatives

Question 120

token economies evaluation - evidence of effectiveness

Answer 120

psychologist identified 7 high quality studies published that examined the effectiveness of token economies for people with chronic mental health issues. showed a reduction of negative symptoms and decline in frequency of unwanted behavior.

Question 121

interactionist approach

Answer 121

a way to explain the development of behavior in terms of a range of factors, including both biological and psychological ones. most importantly such factors don't just add together but combine in a way that cant be predicted by each one separately

Question 122

meehl's model - diathesis stress model

Answer 122

original model diathesis was entirely genetic - single schizogene led to the idea of a biologically based schizotypical personality- characteristic is sensitivity to stress - schizogene + no stress = no schizophrenia stressor - schizophregenic mother in childhood

Question 123

modern understanding of diathesis

Answer 123

polygenetic no schizogene range beyond the genetic to include psychological trauma neurodevelopmental model - early trauma alters brain development e.g. hypothalumic - pituitary - adrenal system become over active

Question 124

modern understanding of stressors

Answer 124

used to only focus on parenting but now focuses on all trigger that may course schizophrenia recent research = cannabis use - interferes with the dopamine system.

Question 125

interactionalist evaluations - diathesis and stress are complex

Answer 125

oversimplicity orginal model - single gene (schizogene) and stressor was schizogenetic mother but polygenetic mental health issue stressors can be biological as well as psychological and diathesis as well. cannabis- dopamine system

Question 126

interactionist evaluation - research support for vulnerability and trigger

Answer 126

research into the impact of both genetic vulnerability and psychological trigger - dysfunctional parenting Finnish children adopted whose biological mothers had schizophrenia compared to control group of adopted children without a family history - to assess child rearing styles found high levels of criticism, hostility, and low levels of empathy were associated in the development of schizophrenia in the high risk group. combination leds to schizophrenia

Question 127

offender profiling (top-down approach)

Answer 127

investigative tool employed by the police when solving crimes aim = to narrow the list of likely suspects methods vary, but the compiling of a profile will usually involve careful scrutiny of the crime scene, and analysis of the other evidence in order to generate hypotheses about the probable characteristics of the offender.

Question 128

The American approach (top-down approach)

Answer 128

profiling originated in the united states as a result of work carried out by the FBI. drew up upon data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated murders e.g. ted Bundy they then concluded that data could be categorised into organised and disorganised crimes each category had certain characteristics meaning that in future situation the data from crimes could be matched to one.

Question 129

organised and unorganised types of offenders

Answer 129

distinction based on the idea that serious offenders have signature ways of working and these generally correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics that relate to individuals

Question 130

organised offenders.

Answer 130

evidence of planning in advance. victim = deliberate target and have a type of victim they seek out high degree of control over the crime scene and act with a detached surgical precision little evidence or clues left at the scene above average intelligence, skilled, professional occupations, socially and sexually competent. - usually married or even have children

Question 131

unorganised offenders

Answer 131

little evidence of planning spontaneous, spur of the moment act crime scene tends to reflect the impulsive nature of the attack - body still at the scene and appear to have little control tend to have a lower than average IQ, unskilled employment or unemployed, history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships tend to live alone and often relatively close to where the offence took place.

Question 132

constructing an FBI profile

Answer 132

there are 4 main stages in the construction of an FBI profile 1. data assimilation - profiler reviews the evidence 2. crime scene classification 3. crime reconstruction - hypotheses in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of victims etc. 4. profile generation - hypothesis related to the likely offender e.g. demographic background, physical characteristics, behaviour

Question 133

strength of top-down approach = research support

Answer 133

support for distinct organised category of offender in order to test organised-disorganised typology which is central to the top-down approach, canter et al conducted an analysis of 100 US murders each committed by a different serial killer. a technique called smallest space analysis was used, a statistical technique that identifies correlations across different samples of behaviour. in this case 39 aspects of serial killing. this included such things as whether there was torture or restraints, whether there was an attempt to conceal the body, the form of murder weapon used and the cause of death. this analysis revealed that there does seem to be a subset of feactures of many serial killings. which matched the FBI's typology for organised offenders this suggests that a key component of the FBI typology approach has some validity.

Question 134

counterpoint of research support for top-down approach

Answer 134

however many studies suggests that the organised combination types are not mutually exclusive. there are a variety of combinations that occur at any given murder scene. for instance, Godwin argues that in reality it is difficult to classify killers as one or the other type. a killer may have multiple contrasting characteristics, such ass high intelligence and sexual competence but commits a spontaneous murder leaving the victim's body at the crime scene. this suggests that the organised-disorganised typology is probably more of a continuum.

Question 135

strength of the top-down approach - wider application

Answer 135

can be adapted to other kinds of crimes, such as burglary. critics of top-down profiling have claimed the technique only applies to a limited number of crimes, such as sexually motivated murder. top-down profiling has recently been applied to burglary, leading to a 85% rise in solved cases in 3 US states. the detection method retains the organised-disorganised distinction but also adds two new categories: interpersonal and opportunistic this suggests that top-down approach profiling has wider application than was originally assumed.

Question 136

the bottom-up approach

Answer 136

profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about likely characteristics, motivations and social background of the offender. - systematic analysis - doesn't begin with fixed typology's, instead the profile is data driven

Question 137

investigative psychology

Answer 137

developed by David Canter who believed that profiling should be based on psychological theory and research. attempts to apply statistical procedures alongside psychological theory, to the analysis of crime scenes evidences. establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur or coexist across crime scenes. - develops a statistical database and using the smallest space programme that acts as a baseline for comparison. specific detail about the offence can be matched against the database to reveal details about the offender e.g. personal history, family background... 3 feactures = interpersonal coherence, significance of time and place, forensic awareness.

Question 138

interpersonal coherence

Answer 138

central to the investigative psychology approach the way an offender behaves at the scene, including how they interact with the victim, may reflect their behaviour in everyday situations e.g. rapists want to maintain maximum control over and humiliate their victims, other are more apologetic. this tell the police something about how the offender relates to women more generally

Question 139

significance of time and place

Answer 139

time and place is also a key variable | for example in geographical profiling - indicate where the offender may live

Question 140

forensic awareness

Answer 140

describes those individuals who have been the subject of police interrogation before, their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks.

Question 141

geographic profiling

Answer 141

uses information about the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an offender. ('crime mapping') based on the spatial consistency - people commit crimes in a limited geographical space used in conjunction with psychological theories to create hypotheses about how the offender is thinking as well as their modus operandi work on the assumption = serial offenders restraint their work to an area they are familiar with and understanding the spatial pattern of behaviour creates a centre of gravity which is likely to be their base

Question 142

canter's circle theory - canter and Larkin 1993

Answer 142

Centre of gravity is the basis the patterns of offending form a circle around the offenders home base. in addition the distribution of offences leads us to describe an offender in two ways 1. marauder - who operates in close proximity to their home base 2. commuter - who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence. Such spatial decision making can offer the investigative team important insight into the nature of the offences.

Question 143

strength of the bottom-up approach - evidence for investigation psychology

Answer 143

canter and Rupert = analysis of 66 sexual assault cases using smallest space analysis serval behaviours were identified as common in different samples of behaviour, such as the use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to victim. each individual displayed a characteristic pattern of such behaviours and this can help establish whether two or more offences were committed by the same person this supports one of the basic principles of investigative psychology that people are consistent in their behaviour.

Question 144

counterpoint to evidence for investigative psychology

Answer 144

however, case linkage depends on the database and this will only consist of historical crimes that have been solved. the fact that they were solved mat be because it was relatively straightforward to link these crimes together in the first place. which makes this a circular argument. this suggests that investigative psychology may tell us little about crimes that have few links between them and therefore remain unsolved

Question 145

strength of the bottom-up approach - evidence for geographical profiling

Answer 145

Lundrigan and Canter collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the US smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the killer. the location of each body disposal site created a centre of gravity presumably because when offenders start from home base they may go in a different direction each time they dispose of a body, but in the end all these different sites create a circular effect around the home base. the offender's base was invariably located in the centre of the pattern. the effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances. this supports the view that geographical information can be used to identify an offender.

Question 146

limitation of bottom-up approach - geographical information insufficient

Answer 146

geographical profiling may not be sufficient on it own. as with investigative psychology, the success of geographical profiling may be reliant on the quality of data that the police can provide. unfortunately, recording of crime is not always accurate, can vary between police forces and an estimated 75% of crimes are not even reported to police in the first place. this calls into question the utility of an approach that relies on the accuracy of geographical data. even if this information is correct, critics claim that other factors are just as important in creating a profile, such as the timing of the offences and the age and experience of the offender. this suggests that geographical information alone may not always lead to the successful capture of an offender.

Question 147

the railway rapist

Answer 147

Canter came to prominence after he assisted police in the capture of John Duffy in 80's Duffy = 24 sexual attacks on women + 3 murders near railway stations in north London analysed geographical information from the crime scenes and combined this information with similar attacks in the past supplied by police. in doing so, Canter was able to draw up a profile of Duffy which was surprisingly accurate and led to his eventual arrest and conviction.

Question 148

personality theory - the theory of criminal personality

Answer 148

Eysenck = proposed that behaviour could be represented along two dimensions introverted-extraversion and neuroticism-stability the two dimensions combine to form a variety of personality characteristics or traits. later added a third dimension = psychoticism-sociability

Question 149

biological basis - theory of criminal personality

Answer 149

according to Eysenck our personality traits are biological in origin and come about through the type of nervous system we inherit. - thus there is a criminal personality that is innate and biological based extravert = underactive nervous system which means they constantly seek excitement, situation and engage in risk taking behaviour. also not easily conditioned = don't learn for mistakes Neurotic = high level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system, they respond quickly to situations of threat. tend to be nervous, jumpy and overanxious = behaviour hard to predict Psychotic = higher level of testosterone and are unemotional and prone to aggression

Question 150

the criminal personality - the theory of the criminal personality

Answer 150

``` type = neurotic-extrovert-psychotic neurotic = unstable so overreact to situations of threat extrovert = seek more arousal and thus engage in dangerous behaviour psychotics = aggressive and lack empathy ```

Question 151

the role of socialisation - the theory of criminal personality

Answer 151

Eysenck's theory. personality is linked to offending behaviour via socialisation processes. saw offending behaviour as developmentally immature in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification = impatient and cannot wait socialisation = teach children to be able to delay gratification and be more socially orientated. High E and N scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition as a result less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses and consequently more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presented itself

Question 152

measuring the criminal personality - the theory of criminal personality

Answer 152

the notion that personality can be measures is one that is central to Eysenck's theory. developed Eysenck's personality Questionnaire = psychological test which locates respondents along E, N, P dimensions to determine their personality type

Question 153

strength theory of criminal Personality theory - research support

Answer 153

evidence to support the criminal personality Eysenck and Eysenck compared 2070 prisoners' scores on the Eysenck's personality questionnaire with 2422 controls. on measures of extrovert, neuroticism and psychoticism prisoners recorded higher average scores than control (across all the age groups that were sampled ) this agrees with the predictions of the theory that offenders rate higher than average across the 3 dimensions Eysenck's identified

Question 154

counterpoint of research support for the theory of criminal personality

Answer 154

Farrington et al = conducted a meta-analysis of relevant studies and reported that offenders tended to score high on measures of psychoticism, but not for extraversion and neuroticism. there is also inconsistent evidence of difference on EEG measures between extraverts and introverts which casts doubt on the physiological basis of Eysenck's theory. this means some of the central assumptions of the criminal personality have been challenged

Question 155

limitation of the theory of criminal personality - too simplistic

Answer 155

a limitation is the idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by personality traits alone Moffitt = drew a distinction between offending behaviour that only occurs in adolescences and that which continues into adulthood. she argued that personality traits alone were a poor predictor of how long offending behaviour would go on for, in the scene of whether someone is likely to become a career offender. considered persistence in offending behaviour to be the result of a reciprocal process between individual personality traits on the other hand and environmental reactions to those traits on the other. this presents a more complex picture than Eysenck suggested, that the course of offending behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and the environment.

Question 156

limitation of the theory of the criminal personality - cultural factors

Answer 156

cultural factors aren't taken into account. the criminal personality may vary across culture. psychologists studied Hispanic and African- American offenders in a maximum security prison in New York. the researcher divided these offenders into 6 groups based on their offending history and the nature of their offences. it was found that all 6 groups were less extravert than a non-offender control group whereas Eysenck would have expected them to be more extraverted. psychologists suggest that this was because the sample was a very different cultural group from the investigated by Eysenck this questions how far the criminal personality can be generalised and suggests it may be a culturally relative concept.

Question 157

differential association theory

Answer 157

proposes that individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives of offending behaviour through association and interactions with different people. e.g. one person might associate with people who have very negative attitudes towards crime while another person may be exposed to more positive attitudes.

Question 158

scientific basis - differential association

Answer 158

``` Sutherland = aimed to develop a set of scientific principles that could explain all types of offending. 'the conditions which are said to cause crime should be present when crime is present and they should be absent when crime is absent his theory was and is designed to discriminate between individuals who become offenders and those who do not whatever their social class or ethnic background. ```

Question 159

offending as a learned behaviour - differential association theory

Answer 159

may be acquired in same way as any other behaviour through the processes of learning. learning occurs most often through interactions with significant others who the child values most and spends the most time with e.g. family and peer groups suggests that it should be possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit an offence. - frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to deviant and non-deviant norms and values. offending arises from 1. learned attitudes towards offending 2. learning of specific offending acts/techniques

Question 160

offending as a learned behaviour - learned attitudes

Answer 160

when a person is socialised into a group they will be exposed to values and attitudes towards the law. values = pro-crime or anti-crime Sutherland argues that the number of pro-crime attitudes the person come to acquire outweigh the number of anti-crime attitudes, they will go on to offend. the learning process is the same whether a person is learning offending or conformity to the law.

Question 161

offending as a learning behaviour - learning techniques

Answer 161

offenders may also learn particular techniques for committing offences. these might include how to break into someone's house through a locked window or how to disable a care stereo

Question 162

socialisation in prison - differential association

Answer 162

as well as offending an account of how offending may breed amongst specific social groups and in communities, Sutherland's theory can also account for why so many convicts released from prison do on to reoffend. it is reasonable to assume that whilst inside prison inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from others, more experienced offenders that they may put into practice upon their release. this learning may occur through observational and imitation or direct tuition from offending peers

Question 163

strength of differential association - shift of focus

Answer 163

at the time it was first published it changed the focus of offending explanations Sutherland successful in moving the emphasis away from early biological accounts for offending as well as away from theories that explained offending as being the product of individual weakness or immorality. differential association theory draws attention to the fact that deviant social circumstances and environments may be more to blame for offending than deviant people. this approach is more desirable because it offers a more realistic solution to the problem of offending instead of eugenics or punishment.

Question 164

counterpoint of a shift of focus as a strength for the differential association theory

Answer 164

having said that, differential association runs the risk of stereotyping individuals who come from impoverished, crime-ridden backgrounds as unavoidably offenders - even though Sutherland took great care to point out that offending should be considered on an individual cases by case basis. however the theory tends to suggest that exposure to pro-crime values is sufficient to produce offending in those who are exposed to it. this ignores the fact that people may chose not to offend despite such influences, as not everyone is exposed to pro-crime attitudes goes on to offend

Question 165

strength of the differential associated theory - wide reach

Answer 165

``` can account for offending within all sectors of society Sutherland recognised that some types of offences, such as burglary may be clustered within certain inner city, working class communities, it is also the case that some offences are clustered amongst more affluent groups in society. Sutherland was particular interested in so-called white collar or corporate offences and how this may be a feature of middle class social groups who share deviant norms and values. this shows that it is not just the lower classes who commit offences and the principle of differential association can be used to explain all offences ```

Question 166

limitation of differential association theory - difficulty testing

Answer 166

difficult to test the predictions of differential associations Sutherland aimed to provide a scientific, mathematical frame work within which future offending behaviour could e predicted and this means that the predictions must be testable. the problem is that many of the concepts are not testable because they cannot be operationalised. e.g. it is hard to see the number of pro-crime attitudes a person has or have been exposed to, could be measured. similarly the theory is built on the assumption that offending behaviour will occur when pro-crime values outnumber anti-crime ones. without being to measure these, we cannot know at what point the urge to offend is realised and the offending career triggered this means the theory does not have scientific credibility

Question 167

psychodynamic explanation - definition

Answer 167

a perspective that describes the different forces most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour.

Question 168

the inadequate superego

Answer 168

superego = develop in the phallic stage through the Oedipus complex, works on the moral principle. Blackburn = argued that if the superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then offending behaviour is inevitable because the ID is given free rein and not probably controlled. 3 types of inadequate superegos - weak superego, deviant superego and over-harsh superego

Question 169

weak superego

Answer 169

the same-gender parent is absent during the phallic stage cannot internalised a fully-formed superego as there is no opportunity for identification. this makes immoral or offending behaviour more likely

Question 170

deviant superego

Answer 170

superego that a child internalises had immoral or deviant values which could lead to offending behaviour. for instance, boy raised by a criminal father is not likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing.

Question 171

over-harsh superego

Answer 171

healthy superego = based on identification with a parent who has firm but forgiving transgressions over-harsh superego = an excessively punitive or overly harsh parental style leads to a child with an over-harsh ego who is crippled by guilt and anxiety. this may drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment

Question 172

the role of emotion

Answer 172

the effect of an inadequate superego is to allow primitive emotional demands to become uppermost in guiding moral behaviour. key feature of the psychodynamic approach and marks it out as different from the other explanations of crime. deals with the emotional life of offending behaviour. this also means that lack of guilt is relevant to understanding offender, as in the case of maternal deprivation theory.

Question 173

theory of material deprivation

Answer 173

Bowlby theory of maternal deprivation ability to form meaningful relationships in adulthood was dependent upon the child forming attachment with their mother figure. failure to establish such relationship during the 1st few years of life = experience a number of damaging and irreversible consequence in later life personality type = affectionless psychopathy - lack empathy, guilt and feeling for others maternal deprivation individual likely to engage in acts of delinquency and cannot develop close relationships.

Question 174

44 juvenile thieves

Answer 174

examined children referred to a guidance clinic in London, aged 5-16 years old 44 of the children were criminals (guilty of thieves) and 44 were non-criminal participants were used as a control group. interviewed the children and their families to create a record of early life experiences results = identified 14 of the 44 thieves as affectionless psychopaths 86% of the 14 of the affectionless psychopaths had experienced early and prolonged deprivation only 17% of the other thieves had experienced such separation and 4% of the control group had experienced frequent early separations. these findings suggest a link between early separations and later social maladjustment

Question 175

strength of the psychodynamic approach - research support

Answer 175

research support for the link between offending and the superego Freudian-style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment in all those, disturbance in superego formation were diagnosed. each offender experienced unconscious feeling of guilt and the need for self-punishment. explained this as a consequence of an over-harsh superego, the need for punishment manifesting itself as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoing and offend. this evidence seems to support the role of psychic conflict and an over-harsh superego as a basis for offending

Question 176

counterpoint of research support for the psychodynamic approach

Answer 176

generally however, the central principle of inadequate superego theory are not supported. if this theory were correct we would expect harsh, punitive parents to raise children who constantly experience feelings of guilt and anxiety. evidence suggests, however that the opposite is true. parents who reply on harsher forms of discipline tend to raise children who are rebellious and rarely express feelings of guilt or self-criticism. this calls into question the relationship between a strong punitive internal parent and excessive feelings of guilt within a child

Question 177

weakness of the psychodynamic approach - gender bias

Answer 177

Freudian theory is gender biased an implicit assumption within Freud's theory is that girls develop a weaker superego than boys because identification with the same gender parent isn't as strong. This is because girls do not experience the intense emotion associated with castration anxiety and therefore are under less pressure to identify with their mothers. therefore according to Freud, their superego is less fully realised. the implication of this is that women should be more prone to offending behaviour than men. Rates of imprisonment show the opposite is more likely to be true with 20x as many men in prison. this suggests there is an alpha bias at the heart of Freud's theory and means it may not be appropriate as an explanation of offender behaviour.

Question 178

level of moral reasoning - moral development - cognitive

Answer 178

Kohlberg = first researcher to apply the concept of moral reasoning to offending behaviour. proposed that people's decision and judgement on issues of right and wrong can be summarized in a stage theory of moral reasoning - the higher the stage the most sophisticated the reasoning many studies = offenders tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning than non-offenders. Kohlberg = using his moral dilemmas, found that a group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youths even after controlling social background

Question 179

level of moral reasoning - link with criminality - cognitive

Answer 179

offender = classified at the preconventional level (Kohlberg's model) non-offender = progress to the conventional level and beyond pre-conventional level - avoid punishment and gain rewards in form of money, increased respect and is associated with less mature, childlike reasoning thus adults and adolescence who reason at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain a reward. assumption = supported by studies which suggest offenders are often more egocentric and display poorer social perspective-taking skills than non-offenders peers. - individuals tend to sympathies more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviour such as honesty, generosity or non-violence.

Question 180

cognitive distortions

Answer 180

error or biases in people's information processing system characterised by faulty thinking. occasionally show evidence of faulty thinking through our behaviour but research has linked this to the way in which offenders interpret other peoples behaviour and justify their own actions. 2 examples of cognitive distortions = hostile attribution bias and minimilisation

Question 181

hostile attributions bias - cognitive distortions

Answer 181

evidence = propensity for violence is often associated with a tendency to misinterpret the actions of other people - in other words, to assume others are being confrontational when they are not. this is hostile attributions bias. offenders may misread non-aggressive cues and this may trigger a disproportionate, often violent, response.

Question 182

hostile attribute bias - Schonenberg and Jusyte

Answer 182

55 violence with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. when compared to a non-aggressive matched control group the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the image as angry and hostile.

Question 183

hostile attributes bias - dodge and frame

Answer 183

the root of this behaviour may be apparent in childhood. study = showed children a video clip of an ambiguous provocation. children who had been identified as aggressive or rejected prior to the study interpreted the situation as more hostile than those classed as non-aggressive and accepeted

Question 184

minimalization - cognitive distortions

Answer 184

is an attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence and has elsewhere been referred to as the application of a euphemistic label for behaviour e.g. bandura for instance, burglars may describe themselves as doing a job or supporting their family as way to minimising the seriousness of their offence studies suggest that individual that commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimilisation. found that amongst 26 incarcerated rapists 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they caused to the victim.

Question 185

strength of level of moral reasoning - research support

Answer 185

evidence for the link between level of moral reasoning and crime when compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the socio moral reflection measure short form which contains 11 moral dilemma-related questions such as not taking tings that belong to others and keeping a promise to a friend. the offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offenders groups this is consistent with Kohlbergs prediction

Question 186

weakness of level of moral reasoning - type of offence

Answer 186

level of moral reasoning may depend on the offence found that people committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulse crimes. pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment. this suggests that Kohlbergs theory may not apply to all forms of crimes

Question 187

strength of cognitive distortions - real world application

Answer 187

application to therapy CBT aims to challenge irrational thinking. in the case of offending behaviour, offenders are encouraged to face up to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions. studies suggest that reduced incidence of denial and minimilisation in therapy is highly associated with a reduced risk of offending. this suggests that the theory of cognitive distortions has practical value

Question 188

weakness of cognitive distortions = type of offences

Answer 188

cognitive distortions depends on the type of offences. questionnaire response from sexual offenders found the contrary to what the researchers predicted. non-sexual offenders used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders. those who had a previous history of offending were also more likely to use distortions as a justification. this suggests that distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders.

Question 189

Kohlberg stages of moral reasoning/development

Answer 189

level 1 = preconventional morality - stage 1 punishment orientation - stage 2 instrumental orientation or personal gain level 2 = conventional morality - stage 3 good boy/girls orientation - stage 4 maintenance of social order level 3 = post-conventional morality - stage 5 morality of contract and individual rights - stage 6 morality of conscience

Question 190

the interactionist approach to treating schizophrenia

Answer 190

combine antipsychotic drugs and CBT Turkington et al = can believe in biological causes of schizophrenia and still practice CBT to relieve symptoms more common to combined the treatments in the UK than in the US