paper 2 - 2022 Flashcards
1
Q
the behaviourists assumptions
A
- psychology is a science + behaviour should be studied using scientific methods
- psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour
- babies are born tabula rasa
- all behaviour is directly learned from the environment
- humans are no different from animals and shouldn’t be regarded as more complex
- research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans
2
Q
classical conditioning - Pavlov
A
aim - explore the relationship between learning and behaviour
NS - bell
UCS - food
UCR - salivation
CR - salivation
CS - bell
associated the bell stimulus to food leading to an uncontrolled behaviour of drooling even when its not present
used to explain the acquisition of phobias and the development of attachment
3
Q
operant conditioning - skinner
A
suggested: behaviour is the result learning through the consequences of our behaviour.
1. positive reinforcement - behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence (repeated)
2. negative reinforcement - behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse consequence (repeated)
3. punishment - behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence (removal of behaviour)
skinner box - rats/pigeons - press level by accident- rewarded with food or removal of shocks- new voluntary behaviour and repeated to received reward again
4
Q
strength of the behaviourist approach - well controlled research
A
approach based on well controlled research
behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. by breaking down behaviours into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed, allowing cause and effect relationship to be established.
for instance, skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animals behaviour.
this suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific creditability
5
Q
counterpoint to well controlled research - behaviourist approach
A
however, the problem with this is that behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process. by reducing to simply components, behaviourists may have ignored an important influence on learning such as human thoughts.
other approaches such as social learning theory and the cognitive approach have drawn attention to the mental processes involvement in learning.
this suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone, and that private mental processes are also essential.
6
Q
strength of the behaviourist approach - real world application
A
the principles of conditioning have been applied to real world behaviours and problems
for example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been successfully in institutions such as prisons and psychiatrics wards.
these work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges.
for example, of how classical conditioning has been applied to the treatment of phobias.
this increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.
7
Q
weakness of the behaviourist approach - environmental determinism
A
sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences
skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. when something happens we may think ‘I made the decision to do that’ but according to skinner, our past conditioning history determined the outcome.
this ignores any possible influence that free will may have on our behaviour.
this is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour.
8
Q
social learning theory - assumptions
A
- psychology is a science and behaviour should be studied using scientific methods
- behaviour is indirectly learned from the environment through observation
- humans imitate the behaviour of their role models
- mediational processes intervene between observation and imitation (stimulus and response)
9
Q
vicarious reinforcement - social learning theory
A
reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforcement for a behaviour.
this is a key factor in imitation - not imitated if the behaviour is punished
learner observe a behaviour and the consequence of the behaviour
10
Q
the role of mediational processes
A
bridge between the behaviourist and cognitive approaches because it focuses on mental factor involvement in learning
mental factors in the learning process determine if the new response is acquired.
4 processes in learning were identified by bandura
1. attention 2. retention 3. motor reproduction 4. motivation
first 2 relate to learning + second 2 relate to performance (not have to occur together)
stored and reproduced later
11
Q
identification - social learning theory
A
when a observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
modelling = the process of imitating a behaviour and the behaviour of a role model
similar characteristics - attractive or high status
role model may not be physically present in the environment - important implication of media on behaviour.
12
Q
strength of the social learning theory - cognitive processes
A
recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning
neither classical or operational conditioning can offer an adequate account for learning on their own. humans and animals about behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to preform certain actions. This was observed by Bandura that found that observing other peoples performing new behaviours will led to this coded in information server as a guide to action on later occasions.
this suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes
13
Q
counterpoint to cognitive factor - social learning theory
A
despite this, SLT has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning.
although Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced our learning potential, he thought that learning itself was determined by the environment.
however, recent research suggest that observational learning may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain, which allows us to empathies with and imitate other people
this suggest that biological influences on social learning were under emphasised in SLT.
14
Q
weakness of social learning theory - contrived lab studies
A
evidence on which it it based was gathered through lab studies.
many of bandura’s ideas were developed through observations of young children’s behaviour in the lab. lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics.
for example in the Bandura bobo doll research that because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children may have been simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected.
this suggests that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.
15
Q
strength of social learning theory - real world application
A
SLT principles have been applied to a range of real world behaviours
social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles, such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement, can account for how children learn from other cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. this has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender role.
this increases the value of the approach as it can account for real world behaviour.
16
Q
Bobo doll research - aim
A
to investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles
17
Q
bobo doll research - method
A
72 children aged between 3 and 6 years old
3 groups for 10 minutes
1. aggressive model - adult hit and shouted at the bobo doll - further subdivided into gender
2. non-aggressive model - adults played quietly with a construction set - subdivided
3. control group - not shown a model
children deliberately frustrated - alone in room with a range of aggressive toys, unaggressive toys and the bobo doll for 20 mins
18
Q
Bobo dolls research - results
A
aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than than those in either of the other two groups.
boys intimated same sex models mores than girls
girls imitated more physical aggression they saw modelled on males and more verbal aggression from female models
19
Q
bobo dolls research - conclusion
A
aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a model
20
Q
issues and debates + social learning theory
A
behaviour is controlled by outside behaviour - soft determinism stance
nomothetic approach - attempts to generate general laws of behaviour which can be widely applied
21
Q
psychodynamic approach assumptions
A
- born with basic instincts and needs
- behaviour and feelings as adults are rooted in childhood experiences
- relationships are great importance in determining how we feel and behave
- psychic determinism - behaviour
- affected by the unconscious
- personality has a discernible structure that was constructed through the psychosexual stages
- unconscious conflicts in the psyche are mediated by defense mechanisms
- human behaviour can be analysed through dreams, irrational behaviour and what people say in therapy.
22
Q
the structure of the personality
A
ID = entirely unconscious, the ID is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification - pleasure principles - primal urges
EGO = the reality check that balances the conflicting demands of the ID and the superego - reality principles - not present at birth - anal stage of development
superego = the moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self how we ought to be - morality principles - inner voice - internalised parent and develops as a response to parental disciplines
23
Q
psychosexual stages
A
oral - 0 to 1 years - mouth, sucking, biting - oral fixation: smoking, nail biting
anal - 1 to 3 years - undergo potty training, ego develops - anal retention or expulsive
phallic - 3 to 6 years - Oedipus or Electra complex - phallic fixation: reckless behaviour + narcissistic
latency - 6 to puberty - sexual energy is latent and can focus on world around them - N/A
genital - puberty + - psychosexual energy take residence in the genitals - homosexual relationships
24
Q
defence mechanisms
A
repression - memory forced out of conscious awareness and into the unconscious
denial - reuse to accept the truth or reality of a situation
displacement - feelings towards a target individual cannot be expressed directly and are therefore transferred onto someone or something else
short term good and long term damaging
protect the ego from high levels of anxiety but prolonged used can be psychological damaging.
25
the role of the unconscious
iceberg metaphor used by Freud
consciousness - top of the iceberg
unconsciousness - larger proportion under surface
pre-consciousness - thoughts and feelings are accessible but aren't being currently being thought about
traumatic events or memories from childhood are repressed into the unconscious mind, hidden from conscious awareness - can be explored through psychoanalysis
reveal itself - dreams, fantasies and Freudian slip
26
strength of psychodynamic approach - real world application
introduced the idea of psychotherapy.
Freud brought to the world a new form of therapy - psychoanalysis. this was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. the new therapy employed a range of techniques designed to assess the unconscious, such as dream analysis.
psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing up their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with. psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern- day talking therapies such as counselling, that have since been established.
this shows that value of the psychodynamic approach is creating a new approach to treatment.
27
counterpoint to real world application -psychodynamic approach
although Freudian therapists have claimed success with many clients with mild neuroses, psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate and even harmful for people experiencing more serious mental disorders, for example many symptoms of schizophrenia (paranoia and delusional thinking) mean that those with the disorder have a lost grip sense of reality and cannot articulate their thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis
this suggests that Freudian therapy may not apply to all mental disorders.
28
strength of psychodynamic approach - explanatory power
Freud's theory is controversial in many ways but it has nevertheless had a huge influence on psychology and western contemporary thought.
alongside behaviorism, the psychodynamic approach remained a key force in psychology for the first half of the 20the century and has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender identity.
the approach is also significant in drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with our parents, and our later development.
this suggests that, overall, the psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on psychology.
29
weakness of psychodynamic approach - untestable concept
the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification and it is not open to empirical testing. also many of Freud's concepts, like the ID and Oedipus complex, are said to be in the unconscious mind making them difficult or almost impossible to test. furthermore, his ideas were based on the subjective study of single individuals such as little Hans, which makes it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour.
this suggests that Freud's theory was Pseudoscientific rather than established fact.
30
weakness of psychodynamic approach - gender and cultural bias
significant gender biases.
for example the idea of the Oedipus complex is androcentric and many would claim this make irrelevant to an understanding of women.
also criticised for being culturally bias as all of Freud patients came from the Viennese middle class, and his universal generalisations were based on highly unrepresentative sample. for example, his idea of the talking cure may be more beneficial in cultures were it is acceptable to talk about personal problems.
31
little Hans
support the idea of the Oedipus complex
5 year old boy who developed a phobia of a horses after seeing one collapse in the street.
Freud suggests that Han's phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto the horses.
therefore horses were a merely a symbolic representation of Han's real unconscious fear of castration
32
issues and debates + psychodynamic approach
psychic determinism
| not scientific
33
humanistic psychology
an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experiences and each person's capacity for self-determination
34
humanistic approaches assumptions
1. recognises the uniqueness of the individual and believe that everyone is different
2. have to look at thing for the individuals point of view and try and understand their subjective experience
3. believes in the study of conscious experience from the first person point of view
4. believe humans have free will and make conscious decisions
5. optimistic view - people are fundamentally good and motivated by a conscious desire to grow themselves psychologically and achieve self-actualisation
35
free will - humanistic approach
the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by internal biological or external forces. (active agents)
influence over their own destiny even with constraints that exist in life from outside forces.
Roger and Maslow - reject more scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour and we should psychology itself should be concerned with the subjective experience. (person- centred approach)
36
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
```
self actualisation (growth need)
self-esteem
love and belonging
safety and security
basic psychological needs ( x4 deficiency need)
```
- motivates behaviour
- to reach self actualisation all other need have to be meet.
- primary goal to reach self actualisation
37
self-actualisation - humanistic approach
the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one's full potential - becoming what are capable of.
uppermost level of Maslow's hierarchy
primary goal - only can be achieved if all other needs are meet.
applies to early development in babies where they are focused on psychological needs and applies through the rest of life.
personal growth is essential part of what it means to be human. - developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisficed and goal-orientated.
not everyone will manage it
38
strength of the humanist approach - optimistic view of humans
as such its views have been praised for bringing the person back into psychology.
Maslow viewed humans as fundamentally good and motivated by a conscious desire to grow themselves psychologically and achieve self-actualisation
this is in total contrast to Freud who views humans as slaves to their past and as existing between common unhappiness and absolute despair.
therefore the humanistic approach is a popular approach for its recognition of the good of humans
39
strength of the humanistic approach - belief in holism
rejects the reductionist approach adopted by all other approaches.
instead the humanistic approach believes that the best way to explain human behaviour is to look at case studies of individuals as a whole and look at their subjective experiences of the world around them; they use a variety of in-depth qualitative methods to try understand all the differing and interlinking factors that may come together in their lives to explain their behaviour.
therefore the humanistic approach is often viewed as much more humanising approach and also may offer a more complete explanation of human behaviour as it considers the individual behaviour within a real life context.
40
weakness of the humanistic approach - cultural bias
many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be much more readily associated with countries that have more individualist tendencies.
countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise more needs of the group and interdependence. in such countries, the ideals of humanistic psychology may not be as important as in others.
therefore it is possible that this approach does not apply universally and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed
41
weakness of the humanistic approach - unscientific
this is because the approach involves a number of more vague and abstract aspects that are important to test e.g. self- actualisation
furthermore much of the evidence base for Maslow's theory of self actualisation was based on a limited number of case studies of famous people, which is far form a representative sample and therefore is difficult to generalised.
therefore, this has led to the rejection of the approach by many who do not see it is a valid approach to explaining human behaviour, but rather a collection of unsupported abstract ideas.
42
the self, congruence and conditions of worth- humanistic approach
personal growth can be achieved if an individuals concept of self must be broadly equivalent to or have congruence with their ideal self.
if the gap is to big between the two selves the person with experience a state of incongruence and self actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self worth that arise from incongruence.
43
client centered therapy - humanistic approach
reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self
Roger developed client centered therapy.
issue we experience everyday as adults have roots in childhood (anxiety and self worthlessness) and can often be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents.
- parent set boundaries or limits in their love for their child by claiming 'I will love you if..' is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future.
role of the therapist to provide unconditional positive regards.
44
define congruence
the aim of Rogerian therapy
| when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.
45
define the nervous system
consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. communicates using electrical signals.
46
the human nervous system
peripheral nervous system central nervous system
autonomic (ANS) somatic (SNS) Brain spinal cord
sympathetic parasympathetic
47
central nervous system
consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions
brain = Centre of all conscious decisions, cerebral cortex 3mm + covers the brain, two hemispheres
spinal cord = extension of the brain, passed messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS. responsible for reflex actions
48
the peripheral nervous system
sends information to the CNS from outside world, and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body
transmits messages, via millions of neurons, to and from the CNS
Autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
49
autonomic nervous system
governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses
transmits information to and from internal bodily organs. it is autonomic as the system operates involuntarily. it has two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
50
somatic nervous system
governs muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors
51
define neuron
the basic building blocks of the nervous system. neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
(80% located in the brain) - primary source of communication to the nervous system
52
elements of a neuron
dendrites - carry impulses to neighboring neuron
myelin sheath - protects axon and speeds up electrical transmissions
nodes of Ranvier - gaps between myelin sheath - jump
cell body - nucleus, genetic information
axon- carries impulse away from cell body
terminal buttons - end of axon - communicate with next neuron
53
sensory neuron
carry messages from the PNS to the CNS.
long dendrites
short axons
54
relay neurons
connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons
short dendrites and axons
55
motor neurons
connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands
short dendrites
long axons
56
location of neurons
cell body of motor neurons may be in the CNS but they have long axons which form part of the PNS.
sensory neurons located outside the CNS in the PNS in clusters knows as ganglia
relay neurons - 97% of all neurons and most are found in within the brain and visual system.
57
electrical transmission - the firing of a neuron
neuron resting state = negatively charge compared to the outside
activated by a stimulus - inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a second causing an action potential to occur
creates electrical impulse - travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron.
58
chemical transmissions - synaptic transmissions
neuron communicate in a groups called neural networks
each neuron is separate but they have small gaps between them called a synapse.
signals between neurons are transmitted chemically across the synaptic
when the electrical impulse reaches the presynaptic terminal it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles
59
neurotransmitters - synaptic transmissions
chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron
bind and are taken up by a postsynaptic receptor site
chemical message converted back into an electrical impulse
can only travel one way as they are released by the presynaptic neuron terminal and received by the postsynaptic neuron.
postsynaptic receptor sites - lock and key - specific molecule structure
each have a specific structure
60
excitatory and inhibitory - synaptic transmission
neurotransmitters - excitatory or inhibitory
serotonin = inhibitory - neuron becomes more negatively charged making the neuron less likely to fire
adrenaline = excitatory - postsynaptic neuron - make it more likely to fire.
61
summation - synaptic transmission
postsynaptic neuron fires is decided by the process of summation
excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed - net effect on postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory then less likely to fire
net effect - excitatory - likely to fire - inside becomes positively charged - electrical charge travel down neuron.
action potential of the postsynaptic neuron is only triggered if the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals at any one time reaches the threshold
62
Phineas cage
(support for localisation)
case study
iron rode went through his left check behind his eye and exiting out of his skull - taking a portion of brain with him - left temporal lobe
survived - but affected his personality became angry and quick tempered
concluded that the temporal lobe is responsible for regulating mood
63
define localisation of functions
the theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours, processes or activities.
64
localisation versus holistic theory
Broca and Wernicke argue for localisation of the brain - idea that different areas are responsible of different behaviours, processes and activities
if a certain area is damaged through illness or injury, the function associated with that area will also be affected.
65
hemispheres of the brain
the main part of the brain is divided by two symmetrical halves called the left and right hemispheres
some physical and psychological functions are controlled by a particular hemisphere
left side of the body = right hemisphere
right side of the body = left hemisphere
language = left hemisphere
66
hemispheres of the brain
the main part of the brain is divided by two symmetrical halves called the left and right hemispheres
some physical and psychological functions are controlled by a particular hemisphere
left side of the body = right hemisphere
right side of the body = left hemisphere
language = left hemisphere
67
motor area
a region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating voluntary movement in the opposite side of the body
damage = loss of fine movement
(back of the frontal lobe)
68
lobes and roles
```
frontal = cognitive functions, such as memory, emotions, social interactions, motor functions
parietal = sensory information
occipital = visual area
temporal = auditory area
cerebellum = small brain - balance, motor skills
```
69
somatosensory area
an area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch
separated from the motor area by the 'valley' or central sulcus
sensory information from the skin
the amount of the somatosensory area devoted to an area the more sensitive it is e.g. face or palm of hand
70
visual area
a part of the occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information
both eyes sends information from the left and right visual field to the right cortex
damage to left hemisphere's visual field can produce blindness in both right visual field of both eyes.
71
Auditory area
located in the temporal lobe and concerned with the analysis of speech-based information
damage = loss of comprehensive or production
72
Brocas area
restricted to the left hemisphere - found by Paul Broca
Broca = small area in the left frontal lobe responsible to speech responsibility
damage = slow, laborious speech and a lack fluency
case study = Tan (only word he would say) - post mortem
Broca aphasia = affect the ability to comprehended language
73
Wernicke's area
location = left temporal lobe - responsible for understanding
damage = loss of comprehension - but can produce words just not in the correct order.
Wernicke's aphasia = produce nonsense words as part of the content of their speech.
74
strength of localisation - evidence from neurosurgery
brain scans support the idea that everyday brain function are localised
Peterson et al = used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke's area was active a listening task and Broca's area was active during a reading task.
also a review of long term memory studies revealed that sematic and episodic memories reside in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.
these studies confirm localisation areas for everyday behaviour
therefore objective methods for measuring the brain activity have provided sound scientific evidence that many brain functions are localised
75
counterpoint to brain scans as a strength - localisation
a challenge to localisation theory comes from research by Lashley
- removed between 10% to 50% of the cortex in rats that were learning the route through a maze.
no area was proven to be more important than an other area in terms of the rats ability to learn a route.
the process of learning seem to require every part of the cortex rather than being confined to a particular area.
this suggests that higher processes, such as learning, are not localised but distributed in a more holistic way in the brain.
76
strength localisation - evidence for neurosurgery
damage to areas of the brain has been linked to mental disorders
neurosurgery is a last resort method for treating some mental disorders, targeting specific areas of the brain which may be involved
e.g. - cingulotomy - involves isolating a region of the cingulate gyrus (processes emotions and behaviour regulation) which has been implicated in OCD.
has been found that after 44 people with OCD undergone a cingulotomy that at 32 week follow up 30% met the criteria for successful response to surgery and 14% had a partial response
the success of these procedures suggest that behaviour is associated with serious mental disorder may be localised
77
weakness of localisation - language localisation questioned
language may not be localised to just Broca's and Wernicke's area.
in recent review found that only 2% of modern researchers think that language in the brain is completely controlled by Broca's and Wernicke's areas.
advances in brain imaging techniques, such as FMRI, mean that neural processes in the brain can be studied with more clarity than ever before.
it seems that language function is distributed far more holistically in the brain than first thought.
so called language streams have been identified across the cortex, including brain regions in the right hemisphere, as well as subcortical regions such as the thalamus
this suggests that rather than being confined to a couple of areas, language may be organised more holistically in the brain, which contradicts the localisation theory
78
define hemispheric lateralisation
the idea that the two halves of the brain are functionally different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other, as in the example language.
79
language - hemispheric lateralisation
2 main centers are only in the LH -
Broca's area = left frontal lobe
Wernicke's = left temporal lobe
RH - only produce rudimentary words and phrase but can provide emotional context
this led to the idea that the LH is the analyser and the RH is the synthesiser
80
functions that aren't lateralised
e.g. vision
vision, motor and somatosensory area are in both hemispheres
motor area is also cross-wired = RH controls movement on the left side of the body
with vision - it is both contralateral and ipsilateral
e.g. both eyes retrieve light from LVF and the RVF
LVF connects to the RH and RVF connects to the LH
this enables the visual areas to compare the slightly different perspectives from each eye and aid depth perception
(similar input for auditory information and the two inputs help us locate the source of the sound)
81
strength of hemispheric lateralisation - lateralisation in the connected brain
research showing that even in connected brains the two hemispheres process information differently.
Fink et al - used PET scans to identify which brain areas were active during a visual processing task.
when participants with connected brains were asked to attend to global elements of an image regions of the RH were much more active. when required to focus in on finer detail the specific areas of the LH tended to dominant.
this suggests that at least as far as vision processing is concerned, hemispheric lateralisation is a feature of the connected brain as well as the split brain.
82
limitation of hemispheric lateralisation - only one brain
the idea of the LH as analyser and RH as synthesiser may be wrong.
there may be different functions in the RH and LH but research suggests people do not have a dominant side of their brain which creates a different personality.
for example, research that analysed brain scans from over 1000 people aged 7 to 29 years and did find that people used certain hemispheres for certain task (evidence for lateralisation). but there was no evidence of a dominant side i.e. not artist's brain or mathematician's brain.
this suggests that the notion of right and left brained people is wrong.
83
split brain research
a operation that involves severing the connections between the RH and LH, mainly the corpus collosum - used to reduce epilepsy
during epilepsy seizures the brain experiences excessive electrical activity which travels from one hemisphere to the other - to reduce fit the brain is cut into two halves.
split brain research shows how the brain functions when they cant communicate with each other.
84
Sperry's research - aim
devised a system to study how two separated hemispheres deal with speech and vision
85
Sperry's research - procedures
11 people who had spilt brain operation were studied using a special set up in which an image could be projected to a participant and the same or different image could be projected to the LVF
in a normal the corpus callosum would immediately share the information between both hemispheres giving a complete picture of the visual world.
however presenting the image to one hemisphere of a split brain participant meant that the information cannot be conveyed from one hemisphere to the other.
86
Sperry's research - findings
object was shown to a participant's RVF (linked to the LH) the participant could describe what they had seen but they could not do this if the object was shown to the LVF, they would say nothing was there. this is because in connected brains messages from the RH are relayed to the language centers in the LH but this is not possible in the split brain.
although participants could not give verbal labels to objects projected into the LVF, they could select a matching object object out of sight using their left hand. the left hand would select an object closely associated with an object presented to the LVF (lighter and cigarette)
if a pinup picture shown to the LVF there was an emotional reaction (giggle) but the participant usually reported seeing nothing or just a flash of light
87
Sperry's research - conclusion
these observations show how certain functions are lateralised in the brain and support the view that the LH is verbal and the RH is silent but emotional
88
strength of Sperry's research - research support
support from more recent split-brain research
showed that split-brain participants actually perform better than connected controls at certain tasks.
e.g. they were faster at identifying the odd one out in an array of similar objects than normal controls. in normal brain, the LHs better cognitive strategies are watered down by the inferior RH.
this supports Sperry earlier findings that the left brain and right brain are distant.
89
weakness of Sperry's research - Generalisations
causal relationships are hard to establish.
the behaviour of Sperry's split brain participants was compared to neurotypical control group. an issue though is that none of the participants in the control group had epilepsy. this is a major confounding variable.
any difference that were observed between the two groups may be the result of the epilepsy rather than the split brain.
this means that some of the unique feactures of the split-brain participants cognitive abilities might have been due to their epilepsy.
90
define plasticity
this describes the brains tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning. this generally involves the growth of new connections
91
Brain plasticity
the brain has the ability to change throughout life
infancy - rapid growth in the number of synaptic connections - peaking at approximately 15,000 at 2
this is 2st as many as there is in any adult brain. - because as we get older connections that were rarely use get deleted and frequently used connections get strengthened - synaptic pruning
synaptic pruning allows for long-life plasticity where new neural connections are formed in response to new demands on the brain
92
research into plasticity
Maguire et al - studied brains of London taxi drivers and found significantly more volume of grey matter in posterior hippocampus than in a matched control group.
- associated with the development of spatial and navigational skills in humans and other animals
- cabbie must take the 'knowledge' test which assess their recall of the city streets and possible routes
found that the longer they had been a taxi driver the more pronounced the structural difference was (positive correlation)
Draganski - found similar thing in med students brain when comparing the brain structure before and after their final exams - learning induced changes occurred in the posterior hippocampus and the parietal cortex
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weakness of brain plasticity - negative plasticity
may have negative behavioural consequences
evidence has shown that the brain's adaptation to prolonged drug use leads to poorer cognitive functioning in later life, as well as an increased risk of dementia.
also 60 - 80% of amputees have been known to develop phantom limb syndrome - the continued experience of sensations in the missing limb as if it were still there. these sensations are usually unpleasant, painful and are thought to be due to cortical reorganisations in the somatosensory cortex that occurs as a result of limb loss
this suggest that brains ability to adapt to damage is not always beneficial
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strength of brain plasticity - age and plasticity
brain plasticity may be a life-long ability
in general plasticity reduces with age. however, psychologist have demonstrated how 40hrs golf training can produce changes in the neural representations of movement in participants aged 40 to 60. using FMRI's the researchers observed an increased motor cortex activity in the novice golfers compared to a control group, suggesting more efficient neural representations after training.
this shows that neural plasticity can continue throughout the lifespan
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define functional recovery
a form of plasticity, follows damage through trauma, the brain's ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damage area to other undamaged areas.
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functional recovery - after brain trauma
following physical injury or other forms of trauma such as a stroke, unaffected areas of the brain are often able to adapt and compensate for those areas that are damaged.
example of brain plasticity
neuroscientist suggest that this process can occur quickly after trauma and then slow down after serval weeks or months - at this point the individual may require rehabilitative therapy further their recovery.
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Functional recovery - what happens in the brain during recovery
brain is able to be rewire and reorganise itself by forming new synaptic connections close to the area of damage
secondary neural pathways that would not typically be used to carry out certain functions are activated to enable functioning to continue, often in the same way as before
this process is supported by a number of structural changes in brain functions
- Axonal sprouting = the growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways
- denervation supersensitivity = occurs when axon with a similar job become aroused to a higher level to compensate for one that were lost - negative consequence of oversensitivity e.g. pain
- recruitment of homologous areas on the opposite side e.g broca area move to RH
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strength of functional recovery - real-world application
understanding the processes involved in plasticity has contributed to the felid of neurorehabilitation
simply understanding that axonal growth is possible encourages new therapist to be tried
e.g. constraint-induced movement therapy is used with stroke patients whereby they repeatedly practice using the affected part of their body while the unaffected side is restrained.
this shows that research into functional recovery is useful as it helps medical professionals know when interventions need to be made
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weakness of functional recovery - cognitive reserve
the level of education may influence recovery rates
study revealed that the more time people with a brain injury had spent in education (taken as an indication of their cognitive reserve ) the greater chances of being disability free recovery
40% of those who achieved DFR had more than 16 years' compared to 10% of those who had less than 12 years' education.
this would imply that people with brain damage who have insufficient DFR are less likely to achieve a full recovery.
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FMRI - ways of studying the brain
a method of measuring brain activity while a person is performing a task
works by detecting a change in blood oxygenation and flow to areas in the brain
more active areas of the brain consume more oxygen and need more blood flow
produce a three dimensional images of the brain - help us know what part of the brain is involved in which mental processes and helps us understand localisation
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electroencephalogram - ways of studying the brain
EEG
measures electrical activity within the brain via electrodes that are fixed to an individuals scalp through a skull cap
scan records represents brainwaves patterns that are generated from neurons, providing brain activity
clinically used as a diagnosis tool for unusual arrhythmic patterns of activity - such neural abnormalities like epilepsy
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event -related potentials - ways of studying the brain
have many clinical and scientific applications
raw form is the overall brain activity - contains all neural responses to specific sensory, cognitive and motor events - researcher have developed ways of teasing out the needed information
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post mortem examination
analyses the brain after death
look at brains with rare disorders and people brain who had abnormal cognitive processes or behaviors in their lives
areas of damage can be examined and can see the causation of affliction the person faced
involve comparing to neurotypical brains to see extent of differences
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strength of FMRI
unlike other brain scans such as PET scans, it does rely on radiation
if administered correctly it is almost risk free, non-invasive and straightforward to use.
it also produces images that have a very high spatial resolution, depicting detail by the millimeter, providing a clear picture of how the brain activity is localised. this means that FMRIs can safely provide a clear picture of brain activity
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limitation of FMRI
is expensive compared to other neuroimaging techniques
it has poor resolution because there is around a 5 second time lag behind the image on screen and the initial firing of neuronal activity.
this means FMRI may not fully represent moment to moment brain activity
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strength of electroencephalogram
EEG has been useful in studying the stages of sleep and in the diagnosis of conditions such as epilepsy, a disorder characterised by random bursts of activity in the brain that can easily be detected on screen.
unlike FMRIs, EEG technology has extremely high temporal resolution of a single millisecond. this shows real world usefulness of the technique
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limitation of electroencephalogram
the main drawback of EEG lies in generalised nature of the information received. The EEG signal is also not useful for pinpointing the exact source of neural activity. therefore it does not allow researchers to distinguish between activities originating in different but adjacent locations
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strength of event-related potentials
unlike EEG, ERP bring much more specificity to measurement if neural processes than could ever be achieved using raw EEG data. as ERPs are derived from EEG measurement, they have excellent temporal resolution, especially when compared to neuroimaging techniques such as FMRIs. this means that ERPs are frequently used to measure cognitive functions and deficits such as the allocation of attentional resources and the maintenance of working memory
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limitations of Event - related potentials
critics have pointed to a lack of standardisation in ERP methodology between different research studies which make it difficult to confirm findings.
a further issue is that, in order to establish pure data in EPR studies, background noise and extraneous material must be completely eliminated
this is a problem because it may not always be easy to achieve
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strength of post-mortem examinations
post - mortem evidence was vital in providing a foundation for early understanding of key processes in the brain. Paul Broca and Karl Wernicke both relied on post-mortem studies in establishing links between language, brain and behaviour decades both neuroimaging ever became a possibility.
post-mortem studies were also use to study HM's brain to identify the areas of damage, which could then be associated with him memory deficits. this means post mortems continue to provide useful information.
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limitation of post-mortem examinations
causation is an issue within these studies however observed damaged to the brain may not be linked to the deficits under review but to some other unrelated trauma or decay.
a further problem is that post mortems studies raise ethical issue of consent from the individual before death. - informed consent
for example, in the case of HM who lost his ability to form memories and was not able to provide such consent- nevertheless post mortem research has been conducted on his brain. this challenges the usefulness of post-mortem studies in psychological research.
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define measure of dispersion
the spread of scores (how far apart they are)
| for example, the range and standard deviation
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7 ethical issues
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informed consent
deception
confidentiality
privacy
withdrawal
debriefing
protection from harm
```
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informed consent
participants must be aware of what they will do, their rights, potential risks and agree to take part
dealing with = consent letter detailing all relevant information that might affect the decision to participant. for investigations using children under the age 16 they need to gain parental consent
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deception
participants should not be mislead about the nature of an investigation
dealing with = fully debriefed, where they are made fully aware of the aim of the study and any details they were not supplied with during the study
also need to told about their right to withhold data, this especially important with retrospective consent.
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confidentiality
information about individuals must not be made public; especially if sensitive.
dealing with = simply record no personal information i.e. maintain anonymity (usually refer to the participants with their initials in case studies ) and should use standard practices of using briefing and debriefing and reminded that their detail will be protected throughout the process
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privacy
observations should only be done where participants are normally visible to others
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withdrawal
participants must be able to leave at any time and have their data removed for the study
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debriefing
after a study, participants should be given full information about its purpose
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protection form harm
there should be no more risk of physical or psychological damage than in normal life
dealing with = fully debriefed, where they are made fully aware of the aim of the study and any details they were not supplied with during the study
also need to told about their right to withhold data, this especially important with retrospective consent.
if participants have concerns about their behaviour they should be reinsured that it was normal/typical and if they face stress or embracement they are allowed to request a counsellor .
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cost - benefits approach
BPS use to determine whether particular research proposals are ethically acceptable
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define extraneous variables
anything other than the tested variables that may influence the results
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common EV's
```
participant variables
order effect
demand characteristics
distraction and confusion
artificiality
```
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common controls = EV's
standardisation
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define polit study
a small scale trail done before a full study.
| used to identify problems such as whether participants can understand instructions or if there was any obvious EVs
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experimental (or alternative or non-directional) = hypotheses
there will be a significant difference in (the dv) between (condition A of the IV) and (condition B of the IV)
differences use bar charts
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correlational hypothesis
there will be a significant difference between (variable A) and (variable 2)
correlations use scatter diagram
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two tailed
= non-directional
| = suggest a significance
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null would state ...
there is no significant
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directional
= 1 tailed
| = would add 'A will be higher than be or state significant positive/ negative correlation
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Qualitative data
literal data that are subjective descriptions of events and experiences
+ high levels of detail
- difficult to analyze
- difficult to summarize
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define sampling
methods to acquire a representative section of the target population so results can be generalised
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random sampling
ever member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
e.g. picking names from a hat
+ possible unbias = as CVs and EVs can be equally divided across the groups = internal validity increases
- may still be unrepresentative
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systematic sampling
mathematical select participants at regular intervals
e.g. ever Nth in a list
+ objective = no researcher bias over who is chosen
- time consuming
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stratified sampling
important sub-groups of the population are identified. the sample proportions match the populations proportions
+ active attempts to avoid unrepresentative sample
+ allows for more generalizable results
- difficult to identify relevant sub-groups
- time consuming
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opportunity sample
the sample includes whoever is available and willing to take part.
(family/friends)
+ quick and convenient
- biased if researcher selects participants
- may all be similar = unrepresentative
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volunteer / self-selecting sample
the sample includes people who freely choose to take part
e.g. advertisements
+ quick and convenient
- biased if the advertisement attracts certain types
- volunteers may be more complaint that the norm (could link to Milgram)
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measurement of central tendency
mean
mode
median
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mean
interval data
total of all scores divided by the number of scores
+ most sensitive; use all data - more representative
- may be skewed by anomalies
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median
ordinal data
middle score when all are listed in rank order
+ not skewed by anomalies
- distorted by small samples
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mode
nominal data
the most frequently score
+ not skewed by anomalies
- can be crude mode, may be several modes
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standard deviation
interval data
the average difference of scores from the mean
+ most sensitive: uses all data = representative
- may hide anomalies
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measures of dispersion
standard deviation
and
range
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range
ordinal data
the difference between highest and lowest score
+ quick, easy to calculate
- distorted by anomalies
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types of experiments
laboratory
natural
field
quasi
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laboratory experiments
conducted in a highly controlled environment where extraneous variables can be controlled by the researcher
+ high control over confounding and extraneous variables
+ highly replicable
- low generalizability = artificial environment
- low mundane realism
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field experiment
an experiment conducted in the participants natural environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV
+ higher mundane realism than lab
- loss of control of CVs and EVs
- ethical issues = consent and privacy
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natural experiment
an experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if researcher had not been there. the researcher recorders the effects of the DV the decided on
+ opportunities for research that might not have been possible to undertake for ethical reasons
+ high external validity
- limited scope of generalizability
- EV = participants not randomly allocated to experimental conditions
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quasi experiments
a study that is almost an experiment but lacks key elements. The IV has not be determined by the researcher or anyone else and the variable may simply just exist such as being young or old.
+ controlled extraneous variables
+ replications
- cannot randomly allocate participants = confounding variables
- cant claim the IV coursed the changes to the DV as the experimenter has no control over them
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experimental designs
repeated measures
independent groups
matched pairs
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repeated measures
same participants in each condition of the IV
+ no participant variables
+ fewer participants needed
- order effect - practices may improve performance
overcoming limitations = counterbalancing (ABBA)
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independent groups
different participants in each conditions of the IV
+ no order effect
+ same materials may be used in both conditions
- participant variables = consistent differences between the participants in each condition
overcoming limitation = random allocation to conditions
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matched pairs
different participant used in each condition but their result are compared to a participant similar to them
+ no order effect
+ active attempt to control participant variables
- time consuming = may be difficult to identify or test relevant characteristics
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self reports
structured interviews
unstructured interviews
open question questionnaires
closed question questionnaires
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structured interview
```
contains fixed predetermined questions
+ easy to analysis
+ control over data
- formal
- cannot develop ideas
- questions may be leading
```
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unstructured interviews
has a set topic area for discussion but no fixed questions or ways of replying.
+ more comfortable, relaxed participants = honest answers
- difficult to analyze reliably
- data may be irrelevant
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open question questionnaires
no fixed questions (qualitative)
+ high validity. probably more in depth and meaningful
- difficult to analyze
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closed questions questionnaires
fixed optional answers ( quantitative )
+ easily summarized and analyzed
- data may lack validity
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experiment = definition and evaluations
IV manipulated, DV measures and other variables controlled
+ good control over variables
+ conclusive testing of cause - effect
- artificial = low ecological validity
- ethical issue + counterpoint, deal with ethical issues
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interview = definition and evaluations
researcher asks questions and recorder replies themselves
+ can judge respondents sincerity
+ questions can be explained to participants
- self report is subjective
- risk of social desirability bias or demand characteristics
- time consuming
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questionnaires = definition and evaluations
participants given a list of questions and record their own answers
+ data collected quickly from a large sample
+ less risk of social desirability bias
- self reports are subjective
- low rate of return
- self-selecting so unlikely to be representative
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observations = definitions and evaluations
spontaneous behaviour is watched and systematically recorded
+ high ecological validity if naturalistic
- little control over variables : observers presence may affect behaviour
- cause and effect is not clear
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correlations = definitions and evaluations
two numerical variables are compared to establish a link
+little ethical issues = its just a mathematical technique
- correlation its not causation
- little control over variables
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case study = definition and evaluations
in-depth study of an individual or small group who are often unusual
+used if participants are unique or if manipulation of participants is not ethical
- small sample so cannot be generalized
- often retrospective
- subjectivity
- no control
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content analysis
observations of communication in secondary sources
+ provides means to study participants who cannot be studied directly
- secondary sources may not reflect actual behaviour or thinking
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controlled observations
record spontaneous behaviour in controlled environment contrived and managed by researchers
+ easily replicable
- observer effect
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naturalistic observation
record spontaneous behaviour in the subject's familiar environment
+ high ecological validity
- cannot infer cause-effect
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covert observation
participants do not know that their behaviour is being recorded
+ natural behaviour + no observer effect
- ethics, privacy
169
overt observation
participants know that their behaviour is being recorded
+ ethically sound
- observer bias
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event sampling
record all occurrences of the behavioural category
+ records all behaviour
- does not record sequences
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time sampling
set standard time periods. record behavioural categories at those times
+ records sequences
- misses some behaviours
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interval data
defined as a data type which is measured along a scale, in which each point is placed at equal distance from one another
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define nominal data
is frequency or count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories.
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ordinal data
data which is numerical and can be put into an order, but nothing else can be inferred from the numbers
175
define investigator effect
occur when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting
2 ways of happening
1. non-verbal 2. verbal
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single blind procedure
a type of research design in which a participants is not aware of research aims and/or of which conditions of the experiment they are receiving
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double blind procedures
a type of research design were neither the participant nor researcher conducting the study are aware of the research aim or other important details of a study and thus have no expectations that might alter a participant's behaviour.
used in drug trials - researcher will be unaware of which participants had the placebo's
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define normal distribution
a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell shaped pattern.
then mean, median, and mode are all located at the highest peak
179
define skewed distribution
a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data is clustered at one end
180
define positive skew
a type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is connected on the left.
181
define negative skew
a type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated in the right.
