paper 2 - learning theoriess

Question 1

What is the cognitive stage of learning?

Answer 1

The performer begins to create a clear mental image of what the skill is supposed to look like.
An accurate demonstration is necessary, which the performer will copy.
Mental rehearsal is required.
Many mistakes are made.
The performer uses trial and error to work out the correct method.
Movements appear uncoordinated and jerky.
The performer has to think about the skill, all the attention is placed on working out the components.
Motor programmes are yet not formed.

Question 2

What feedback is used for the cognitive stage?

Answer 2

The performer is reliant on extrinsic feedback from the coach to direct performance and highlight weaknesses.
Feedback should be positive so that the performer will persevere with the learning process.
Some knowledge of results can be used, so the successful actions are repeated and unsuccessful actions are modified.

Question 3

What is the associative stage of learning?

Answer 3

The performer must continue to practice.
The performer models their current actions on those of skilled athletes.
The performer becomes more proficient, making fewer mistakes.
Movement appears smoother and more co-ordinated.
The performer can begin to focus their attention on the finer aspects of the skill.
Motor programmes are developing and will be stored in the long-term memory.
Demonstrations, positive feedback and mental rehearsal are still required to aid learning.

Question 4

What feedback is used for the associative stage?

Answer 4

The performer begins to develop kinesthesis and uses intrinsic feedback to correct movement. They will know how the movement is supposed to feel.
Extrinsic feedback is still used to refine actions.
The performer begins to use knowledge of performance.

Question 5

What is an example of sport in the associative stage?

Answer 5

A gymnast on a beam will have practised and mastered the basic skills and will now be able to execute more complex movements.
They can now use more intrinsic feedback, as they are beginning to become aware of how the movement should feel.
They can now look up and forward rather than down at their feet.

Question 6

What is the autonomous stage of learning?

Answer 6

Movements are fluid, efficient and have become habitual due to extensive practice.
Skills are executed automatically, without consciously thinking about subroutines.
Motor programmes are fully formed and stored in the long term memory.
The performer can concentrate on fine detail, tactics and advanced strategies.
It is still important to practice and mentally rehearse in order to stay at this level.

Question 7

What feedback is used in the autonomous stage?

Answer 7

The performer uses intrinsic feedback to correct their own mistakes through kinaesthesis.
Extrinsic feedback can be negative to aid error correction.
The performer uses knowledge of performance to understand why the action was successful or unsuccessful.

Question 8

What is an example of sport in the autonomous stage?

Answer 8

A basketball player will be able to dribble the ball fluently and consistently without having to look down at the ball.
They are able to scan the court for passing options without concentration on controlling the ball, as it is being controlled automatically.
They can correct errors they make immediately, without assistance from the coach.

Question 9

What is knowledge of performance?

Answer 9

Information about why the skill or action was successful, including technique and quality of action.

Question 10

What is knowledge of results?

Answer 10

Information about whether or not the skill or action was successful or unsuccessful.

Question 11

What is positive feedback?

Answer 11

Information about what was correct, so that it will be repeated in the future.

Question 12

What is negative feedback?

Answer 12

Information about incorrect actions, so they are not repeated and errors are corrected.

Question 13

What is intrinsic feedback?

Answer 13

From within using kinesthesis, used to ‘feel’ if the action was correct or not, can be positive or negative.

Question 14

What is a learning plateau?

Answer 14

A period during performance when there is no improvement.

Question 15

What are the stages in a graph of a learning curve?

Answer 15

1: The rate of learning is slow and performance level is poor because the performer is new to the task and in the cognitive stage, possibly using trial and error.
2: Rapid acceleration as performer is beginning to master the task and gain some success, providing reinforcement and motivation.
3: No improvement ‘plateau’.
4: Performance decelerates perhaps due to fatigue.

Question 16

What are the causes of a learning plateau?

Answer 16

Lack of motivation from lack of rewards.
The repetitive nature may cause boredom.
The coach may use incorrect practice methods so skill is not done correctly.
Limit of ability, can’t improve as don’t have the skill level yet.
Targets set too low, can’t use full range of skills.
Fatigue, caused by continuous action over extended time.

Question 17

What are possible solutions to a learning plateau?

Answer 17

Task be extended, new goals set to see if performer reaches these.
Find a new coach to raise performance levels.
Coach could offer more praise to provide motivation.
A rest to avoid fatigue.
More variety to avoid boredom.
The plateau explained to performer so they don’t feel responsible.
Get feedback to improve performance.

Question 18

What is visual guidance?

Answer 18

A demonstration of the task, to create a mental image for a beginner to use for future reference.
Given by another performer or coach, social media, books or videos.

Question 19

What are the requirements for visual guidance?

Answer 19

The demonstration should be seen as within the capabilities of the performer, to maintain motivation and confidence.
Demonstration should be shown from different angles, mental rehearsal may be used to complement the learning.
Key points should be highlighted and reinforcement used to retain the skill.
The coach should repeat the skill and allow the performer time to practice.

Question 20

What are the advantages of visual guidance?

Answer 20

Can highlight a specific weakness.
E.g. a coach may point to the exact place to put the foot in indoor climbing.
It tries to show what the skill should look like as a result of practice.
It creates a mental image
Nearly always used in conjunction with verbal.

Question 21

What are the disadvantages of visual guidance?

Answer 21

The demonstration must be accurate, otherwise incorrect movement copied.
Can cause information overload.
Performer may not have the ability to perform the demonstration if coach does not ensure success.

Question 22

What is verbal guidance?

Answer 22

An explanation of the task, usually in conjunction with visual guidance, when coach highlights points in demonstration.
Helps build a mental image in memory.
It can be used by a more experienced player, with technical and detailed advice is given to complement the actions.

Question 23

What are the considerations for verbal guidance?

Answer 23

It can cause information overload.
The language should be understandable, a beginner might not understand technical terms.
The information should be brief, relevant and meaningful so they don’t lose concentration.
The correct feedback should be used.

Question 24

What is manual guidance?

Answer 24

It involves physical support, e.g. holding a gymnast on a vault or in a headstand.
It can involve a type of forced response, e.g. the coach holds the arm of a tennis player to help them learn the movement of a stroke.

Question 25

What are the advantages of manual guidance?

Answer 25

It helps eliminate danger.
It helps build the confidence of a performer who might not be able to gain the feel of the task without help and support.
Fear associated with dangerous or difficult task may be reduced if their support is on hand to help them.
When the task is more difficult it can be broken down into stages with the help of physical support.

Question 26

What are the disadvantages of manual guidance?

Answer 26

If can have a detrimental effect if over used.
Once the initial feel is established, too much reliance can interfere with the feel of the task, developing bad habits.
The performer can become too dependent on the support, unable to do the task without help, losing confidence.
It requires close proximity, which may be off-putting.

Question 27

What is mechanical guidance?

Answer 27

A device used to help performance, such as armbands in swimming, or a harness in trampolining.

Question 28

What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?

Answer 28

Builds confidence, gives the performer a sense they can do it.
Eliminates danger, to help prevent injury.
Gives an early sense of the skill, promotes learning by alerting the senses to the movement.
It can be used with disabled athletes or those recovering from injury.

Question 29

What are the disadvantages of mechanical guidance?

Answer 29

If used too much, it can interfere with the feel.
Performer can become over dependent, so they can’t perform without the aid, promotes a loss of confidence.
Motivation can be lost if the performer feels skill still isn’t performed independently, and incorrect intrinsic feedback could encourage bad habits.

Question 30

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 30

The Behaviourist Theory:
The coach uses a manipulative approach to ensure skills are learnt, actions where the athlete is rewarded are more likely to be repeated and remembered.
It uses reinforcement to link correct response to stimulus.
It is based on trial and error learning.
Success acts as a satisfier to strengthen correct actions.
An annoyer such as criticism are given to unsuccessful actions so they’re avoided.

Question 31

What is positive reinforcement?

Answer 31

When a pleasant stimulus is given to increase the likelihood of a correct response occurring again.
E.g. the coach offers praise to the swimmer for a correct leg action.

Question 32

What is negative reinforcement?

Answer 32

It promotes correct actions occurring to a stimulus by taking away an unpleasant stimulus when the performer does it right.
Negative criticism is withdrawn when they perform well.
If the coach who is repeatedly telling a performer they are doing badly suddenly becomes quiet, then the learner knows they have begun to perform correctly.

Question 33

What is punishment?

Answer 33

When a coach gives an unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions from happening again.
A red card would hopefully tell the player not to repeat the offence.

Question 34

What is observational learning?

Answer 34

Behaviour can be learned by watching and copying other people who are model performers.
Model behaviours are more likely to be copied if:
They are close to appropriate social norms, performed by a player of similar ability.
They are reinforced.
They are visually and physically powerful.
They are consistent.
They are relevant.

Question 35

What is the attention process?

Answer 35

Making sure the performer takes note of the relevant cues.
The more attractive the demo, the more likely it is to be copied.
Grab the attention by pointing out the function or reason of the demo.
Make the model stand out by making it loud, bright or attractive and therefore more memorable.
Demonstration should be accurate and always correct.

Question 36

What is the retention process?

Answer 36

The ability to remember important information and recall it from the memory system.
Break any information into ‘chunks’ and repeat it.
The learner should attempt the skill as soon as it is seen, so the demo is fresh.

Question 37

What is motor production?

Answer 37

Making sure the performer is capable of physically copying the demonstration.
In the early stages, success should be ensured by setting easy tasks and then making progress as the tasks become more complex.
The player should be given time to practise and learn well before moving on.

Question 38

What is motivation?

Answer 38

The drive needed to copy the demonstration.
Motivate the learner by giving praise and rewards or offering positive feedback and reinforcement.

Question 39

What is the social development theory: Vygotsky?

Answer 39

Interaction with others plays a vital role in learning, and can produce learning by social development.
In sport, skills can be learned from coaches and teachers, or more knowledgeable others.
The MKO gives direct examples and advice as well as influencing the learner by demonstrating values and actions such as high effort, a healthy lifestyle, and clear communication.

Question 40

What is inter-psychological learning?

Answer 40

The process by which skills are learned from the coach during development.
The learner uses the MKO to get advice, feedback and tactical knowledge.

Question 41

What is intra-psychological learning?

Answer 41

Once external advice has been absorbed, learning can take place within the learner who will use cognitive aspects of skill acquisition to internally analyse, think about and construct actions based on what they have learned externally.

Question 42

What is constructivism: Vygotsky?

Answer 42

Building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance and what you know.
Working with others can develop skills by learning from the actions of those who are more experienced and add their actions to the ones you already know.
During intra-psychological learning, the learner will assess their level of performance and what they need to do to move to the next level. The MKO may help to give more advice as the skill is advanced.

Question 43

What is the zone of proximal development?

Answer 43

An assessment of what they need to do next to learn the skill.
3 stages:
What can I do alone?
What can I do with help?
What can I not do yet?

Question 44

What is insight learning: Gestaltists?

Answer 44

Performer uses existing knowledge to form an idea of how to deal with problematic sporting situations.
It concentrates on the whole task, so is good for realistic situations.
The performer has worked out the solution so may provide self-satisfaction and intrinsically motivate.
It encourages the performer to think for themselves and develop the cognitive process, and may work better than simply being told as it generates more understanding of the actions.

Question 45

What is an example of insight learning?

Answer 45

3000m athletics race, athlete may be aware that other performers have a fast finish in the last 400m, so works out it would be a good tactic to set off at a fast, maintained pace.
If the tactic works it will be used in similar future situations.
The athlete has learned to change their behaviour.