Organisational & Social 4 Flashcards
impression management
actively shaping through self presentation and other means the perceptins and attitudes that others have of us
organisational politics
behaviours that others perceive as self serving tactics at the expense of other people and possibly the organisaation
Machiavellian values
the beliefs that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than one deserves is acceptable
deindividuation
the psychological state in which grou or social identity completely dominates personal or individual identity so that group norms become maximally accessible
descriptive social norms
agreed upon mntal representations of what a group of people think, feel or do
injunctive social norms
agreed upon mental representations of what a group of people should think feel or do
conformity
the convergence of indivduals thoughts feelings or behaviour toward a scial norm
private conformity
private acceptance of social norms
public conformity
overt behaviour consistent with social norms that are not privately accepted
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate others agreement with one’s own opinions characteristics and behaviours
informational influence
the process by which group norms are privately accepted to achieve or maintain mastery or reality
normative influence
the process by which group norms are privately accepted to achieve or maintain connectedness and a valued social identity
reference group
those people accepted as an appropriate source of information for a judgment because they share the attributes relevant for making that judgment
group polarization
the process by which a group’s initial avrage position becomes more extreme following group interaction
pluralistic ignorance
occurs when everyone publicly conforms to an apparent norm that no one in fact privately accepts
groupthink
group decision making that is impaired by the drive to reach consensus regardless of how the consensus is formed
deindividuation
the psychological state in which group or social identity completely dominates personal or indiviudal identity so that group norms become maximally accessible
norm of reciprocity
the shared view that people are obligted to return to others the goods, services and concessions they offer to us
door in the face technique
technique in which thei nfluener makes an intitial request so large that it will be rejected, follows with smaller reqquest
norm of social commitment
the shared view that people are required to honor their agreements and obligations
low-ball technique
a technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the cost of honnoring the commitment
norm of obedience to authority
the shared view that people should obey those with legitimate authority
reactance
the motive to protect or restore a threatened sense of behavioural freedom
interdependence
each group members thoughts, emotions and behaviours influence the others
social facilitation
an increase in the likelihood of highly accessible responses, and a decrease in the likelihood of less accessible responses, due to the presence of others
task interdependence
reliance on other members of a group for mastery of material outcomes that arise from the group’s task
social interdependence
reliance on other members of the group for feelings of connectedness, social and emotional rewards, and a positive social identity
group socialization
the cognitive affective and behavioural changes that occur as individuals join and leave groups
ostrcism
being ignored and excluded from a group
social loafing
the tendency to exert less effort on a task when an indivuiduals efforts are an unidentifiable part of a group than when the same task is performed alone
social compensation
one group member working especially hard to compensate for another’s low level of effort or performance
leadership
a process in which one or more group members are permitted to influence and motivate others to help attain group goals
contingency theories of leadership
theories holding that leader behaviours can differ and that different behaviours are most effective in specific leadership situations
transformational leadership
leaders who inspire extreme devotion and emotional identification on the part of their followers, allowing tem to have profound effects on their followers
power
the ability to provide or withholld rewards or punishments from others
teams
groups of two or more people who interact with and influence each other, are mutuallly accountable for achieving common goals associated with organizational objectives, and perceive themselves as a social entitywithin an organisation
process losses
resources (including time and energy) expended toward team development and maintenance rather than the task
Brook’s law
the principle that adding more people to a late software project only makes it later
social loafing
the problem that occurs when people exert less effort when working in teams than when working alone
task interdependence
the extent to which team members must share materials, information, or expertise in order to perform their jobs
team building
a process that consists of formal activities intended to improve the development and functioning of a work team
norms
the informal rules and shared expectations that groups establish to regulate the behaviour of their members
team cohesion
the degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members
self-directed teams
cross functional work groups that are organized around work processes, comlete an entire pierce of work requiring several interdependent tasks, and have substatnial autonomy over the execution of those tasks
virtual teams
teams whose members operate across space, time and organizational boundaries and are linked through information technologies to achieve organizational tasks
production blocking
a time constraint in team decision making due to the procedural requirement that only one person may speak at a time
evaluation apprehension
a decision making problem that occurs when indivuals are reluctant to mention ideas that seem silly because they believe (often correctly) that other team members are silently evaluating them
team efficacy
the collective belief among team members in the teams capability to successfully complete a task
brainstorming
team members arent alowed to critize but are encouraged to speak freely, generate as many ideas as possible
brainwriting
variation of brainstorming whereby participants write (rather than speak about) and share their ideas
electronic brainstorming
form of brainwriting that relies on networked computers for submitting and sharing creative ideas
nominal group technique
variation of brainwriting consisting of three stages in which participants 1. silently and independenlty document their ideas, 2 collectively describe these ideas to the other team members without critique 3 silently and independently evaluate the ideas presented
emotional contagion
the nonconscious process of catching or sharing another persons emotions by mimicking that persons facial expressions and other nonverbal behaviour
synchronicity
the extent to which the channel requires or alows both sender and receiver to be actively involved in the conversation at the same time (synchronous) or a t different times (asynchronous)
social presence
the extent to which a communication channel creates sychoogical closeness to onthers, awareness of their humanness, and appreciatin o the interpersonal relationship
media richness
a medium’s data-carrying capacity, that is the volume and variety of information that can be transmitted during a specific time
persuasion
the use of facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another persons beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the persons behaviour
information overload
a condition in which the volme of information received exceeds the persons capacity to process it
management by walking around
a communication practice in which executives get out of their offices and learn from others in the organisation through face to face dialogue
grapevine
an unstructured and informal communication network founded on scoial relationship rather than organizational charts or job descriptions
power
capacity of a person team or organization to influence others
countervailling power
the capacity of a person, team or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship
legitimate power
an agreement among organizatioinal members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others
norm of reciprocity
a felt obligation and social expectation of helping or otherwise giving something of value to someone who has already helped or given something of value to you
referent power
the capacity to influence others on the basis of an identification with and respect for the power holder
charisma
a personal characteristic or special gift that serves as a form of interpersonal attraction and referent power over others
centrality
a contingency of power pertaining to the degree and nature of interdependence between the power holder and others
social networks
social structures
social capital
the knowledge and other resources available to people or social units (teams, organizations) from a durable network that connects them to others
structural hole
an area between two or more dense social network areas that lack network ties
influence
any behaviour that attempts to alter someones attitudes or behaviour
upward appeal
a type of influencer in which somene with higher authority or expertise is called on in reality or symbollically to support the influencers positiion
upward appeal
a type of influencer in which somene with higher authority or expertise is called on in reality or symbollically to support the influencers positiion
conflict
the process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party
task conflict
a type of conflict in which people focus their discussion around the issue while showing respect for people who have other points of view
relationship conflict
a type of conflict in which people focus on characteristics of other individuals, rather than on the issues, as the source of conflict
win-win orientation
the belief that ocnflicting parties will find a mutually beneficial solution to their disagreement
win-lose orientation
the belief that conflicting parties are drawing from a fixed pie, so the more one party receives the less the other party will receive
superordinate goals
goals that the conflicting parties value and whose attainment requires the joint resources and effort of those parties
third-party conflict resolution
any attempt by a relatively neutral person to help conflicting parties resolve their differences
negotiation
the process whereby 2 or more conflicting parties attempt to resolve their divergent goals by redefining the terms of their interdependence
best alternative to a negotiated settlement
the best outcome you might achieve through some other course of action if you abandon the current negotiation
leadership
influencing motivating and enabling others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members
shared leadership
the view that leadership is a role, not a position assgned to ne person; consequently, people within the team and organization lead each other
transformational leadership
a leadershiip perspective that explains how leaders change team sor organizations by creating communicating and modeling a vision for the orgnization or work unit and inspiring employees to strive for that vision
managerial leadership
a leadership perspective stating that effective leaders help employees improve their performance and well-being toward current objectives and practices
servant leadership
the view that leaders serve followers, rather than vice versa; leaders help employees fulfill their needs and are coaches, stewards and facilitators of employee development
path-goal leadership theory
a leadership thoery stating that effective leaders choose the most appropriate leadership styles, depending on the employee and situation, to influence employee expectations about desired results and their positive outcomes
fiedlers contingency model
a leadership model stating that leader effectiveness depends on whether the persons natural leadership style is appropriately matched to the situation (th level of situational control)
leadership substitutes
a theory identifiying conditions that either limit a leaders ability to influence subordinates or make a particular leadership style unnecessary
implicit leadership theory
a thoery stating that people evaluate a leaders effectiveness in terms of how well that person fits preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviours of effective leaders (leadership prototypes) and that people tend to inflate the influence of leaders on organizational events
authentic leadership
the view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality and self-concept
exchange relationship
a relationship in which people offer rewards in order to receive benefits in return
close relationship
a relationship involving strong and frequent interdependence in many domains in life
love
thoughts feelings and actions that occur when a person wishes to enter or maintain a close relationship with specific person
communcal relationships
relationship in which people reward their partner out of direct concert and to show caring
attachment styles
peoples basic securely attached avoidnt or anxious orientation towards others in close relationships
accommodation
the process of responding to a negative action by the partner
aggression
behaviour intended to harm someone else
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of goals between two or more parties
instrumental aggression
aggression serving mastery needs, used as a means to an end to control other people, or to obtain valuable sources
hostile agression
aggression that is driven by anger due to insult, disrespect or other threats to self-esteem or social identitiy
frustration-agression theory
a theory holding that any frustration defined as the blocking of an important goal inevitably triggers agression
general agression model
a theory that person and situation factors influence people’s cognition emotions and arousal which in turn influence interpretations of the situation and decisions about agressin
realistic conflict theory
the theory that intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce but valued material resources
relative deprivation theory
the theory that feelings of discontent arise from the belief that other individuals or other groups are better of
vicarious retribution
members of a group who were not themselves directly harmed by an attack retaliating against members of the offending group
coalition formation
occurs when two or more parties pool their resources to obtain a mutual goal they probably could not achieve alone
reactive devaluation
perceiving a proposed solution to a conflict negtively simply because the out-group offers it
negotiation
the process by which parties in conflict communicate and influence each other to reach agreement
superordinate goals
shared goals that can be attained only if groups work together
prosocial behaviour
behaviour intended to help someone else
cooperation
two or more people working together toward a common goal that will benefit all involved
altruism
behaviour intended to help someone else wihtout any prospect of personal rewards for the helper
egoism
behaviour motivated by the desire to obtain personal rewards
norm social responsibility
a norm that those able to take care of themselves have a duty and obligation to assist those who cannot
diffusion of responisbility
the effect of other people present on diminishing each individuals perceived responsibility for helping, one explanation for the bystander effect
bystander effect
the finding that the presence of more bystanders consistently decrease the likelihood of any one person giving help
negative-state relief model
the theory that most people hate to watch others suffer, so the ultimate goal of their help is not to aid the person in need for his or her sake, but to reduce the helpers own stress
empathy-altruism model
the theory that feelings of empathic concern lead to a motive to help someone in need for his or her own sake
social dilemma
a form of interdependence in which the most rewarding action for each individual will, if chosen by all individuals, produce a negative outcome for the entire group
trust
the expectation that others will act prosocially during a social interaction
social value orientation
stable differences in the ways people act in social dilemmas (such as competitive or prosocial)
organisational structure
the division of labor as well as the patterns of coordination, communication workflow and formal power that direct orginizational activities
span of control
the number of people directly reporting to the next level above the hierarchy
centralization
the degree to which formal decision authority is held by a small group of people, typically those at the top of the organizational hierarchy
formalization
the degree to which organizations standardize behaviour through rules, procedures, formal training and related mechanisms
mechanistic structure
an organizational structure with a narrow span of control and a high degree of formalization and centralization
organic structure
an organizational structure with a wide span of control, little formalization and decentralized decision making
functional structure
an organizational structure in which employees are organized around specifc knowledge or other resources
divisional structure
an organizational structure in which employees are organized around geographic areas, outputs (products or services) or clients
team-based organizational structure
an organizational structure built around self-directed teams that complete an entire piece of work
matrix structure
an organizational strucutre that overlays two strctures (such as a georgraphic divisional and a product structure) in order to leverage the benefits of both
organizational strategy
the way an organisation positions itself in its environment in relation to its stakeholders, given the organizations resources capabilities and mission
artifacts
the observable symbols and signs of an organizations culture
rituals
the programmed routines of daily organizational life that dramatize the organizations culture
ceremonies
planned displays of organizational culture, conducted specifically for the benefit of an audience
adaptive culture
an organizational culture in which employees are receptive to change, including the ongoing alignment of the organization to its environment and continuous improvement of internal processes
bicultural audit
a process of diagnosing cultural relations between companies and determining the extent to which cultural clashes will likely occur
attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) theory
a theory that states that organizations have a natural tendency to attract select and reatin people with values and personality characteristics that are consistent with the organizations character, resulting in a more homogrneous organisation and a stronger culture
organization socialization
the process by whcih individuals learn the values, expected behaviours and social knowledge necesssary to assume their roles in the organization
psychological contract
the individuals beliefs about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that person and another party (typically an employer)
reality shock
the stress that results when employees perceive discrepancies between their preempployment expectations and on the job reality
realistic job preview
a method of improving orgnizational socialization in which job applicants are given a balance of positive and negative information about hte job and work context
force field analysis
kurt lewins model of systemwide change that helps change agents diagnose the forces that drive and restrain proposed organizational change
unfreezing
the first part of the change process, in which the change agent produces disequilibrium between the driving and restraining forces
refreezing
the latter part of the change process, in which systems and structures are introduced that reinforce and maintain the desired behaviours
design thinking
a human-centered, solution focused creative process htat applies both intuition and analytical thinking to clarify problems and generte innovative solutions
action research
a problem-focused change process that combines action orientation (changing attitudes and behaviour) and reseach orientation (testing theory through data cllection and analysis)
appreciative inquiry
an organizational change strategy that direts the group’s attention away from its own problems and focuses participants on the groups potential and positive elements
positive organizational behaviour
a perspective of organizational behaviour that focuses on building positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions as opposed to focusing on what is wrong with them
parallel learning structure
a highly participative social structure developed alongside the formal hierarchy and composed of people across organizational levels who apply the action research model to produce meaningful organizational change
additive task
sum of individual group members
conjunctive task
performance is as good as the ‘weakest’ member
disjunctive task
equals as good as performance of best member
compensatory task
averaged performance
radicalisation
a rocess driven bij a combination of personality (micro) factors nd contextual (meso and macro) factors
seperatist
main concern : territory for the own group
extreme right wing
main concern : threat to superiority of the ‘white race’
extreme left wing
main concern: a just distribution of wealth
single issue
main concern; one particular topic
religiously motivated
main concern ; spreading their religion
ground floor
perceptions of fairness and just treatment : relative deprivation
first floor
what can you do about it ? options to counter unfariness
second floor
blaming the other (displacement of agression)
third floor
moral superiority
fourth floor
legitimacy own group, training
fifth floor
terrorist act
significance quest theory
loss of significance fosters radicalisation through an increased need for closure
pro-action
observing radicalisation and polarisation at an early stage
repression
disrupting organisation
glass ceilings
actual and or perceived barrier in plae within occupational or organizational settings that limits the upward mobility nof women with respect to pay and promotions
glass cliff
tendency for women to be more likely than men to be appointed to leadership positions that are risky and precarious
