developmental psychology Flashcards
maturational theory of Gesell
biologically directed maturation; the same developmental patterns independent of environmental input
cephalocaudal trend
from head to foot
proximodistal trend
from centre of body to peripheral
McGraw- motor development
environment can shape motor development, twin study extra training in swimming skating and climbing
dynamic systems theory
development is a complex interaction between properties of the system and the environment
system
collection of component that are interrelated (body, family)
dynamic system
collection of components that influence each other. describes how a state changes another state over time, self-organisation
Esther thelen Dynamic system theory
motor development is shaped by central nervous system, motor skills and environment
behaviourism child development
child is passive in its development, environment shapes development
law of recency
likelihood of repetition of recent acquired behaviour is higher
law of exercise
practice strengthens stimulus response connections
constructivism
acquiring knowledge and skills is the result of thinking big children themselves. children learn by connecting new information to what they already know (piagets theory and information processing approach)
assimilation
fit knowledge into preexisting schemes
accommodation
modify preexisting schemes
equilibration
schemes are in balance
information processing theory
individuals process info similar to a computer. to understand behaviour we need to understand the mental processes underlying the association between init and output
social constructivism
social environment is a critical guide factor in development
zone of proximal development
skills that are just a bit too difficult but can be learned with help
scaffolding
adopt instruction to the level of the child
cognitive adaptations
children developing cognitive awareness of the world as a result they become better able to understand their world
functional invariants
processes that o not chang during development, such as accommodation and assimilation
sensorimotor stage
first stage, though is based primarily on perception and action and internalised thinking is absent. from birth to 2 yrs
preoperational stage
egocentrism, animism, contraption. under the age of 7 are unable to coordinate aspects of problems in order to solve them
concrete operations stage
conservation and seriation understood, third stage, reasoning is said to become more logical, systematic and rational in its application to concrete objects
formal operations stage
fourth stage, in which the individual acquires the capacity for abstract scientific thought, this includes ability to theorise about impossible events and items
animism
children tend to attribute life like qualities to inanimate objects
centration
the focusing or centring of attention on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others
bottom up
building complex systems of knowledge from simpler origins
top down
the state of the system is specified or presumed, and then working to discover its components and their development
connectionism
in which computers are programmed to stimulate the action of the brain and nerve cells
introspectionism
in which observers were ask to reflect on their thoughts feelings and perceptions
law of effect
hates that he likelihood of n action being repeated is increased if it leads to a pleasant outcome, and decreased if it leads to an unpleasant outcome
reductionism
the claim of complex behaviours and skills such as language and problem solving are formed from simpler processes, such as neural activity and conditioning
precocial species
those species of animals where the young are able to locomotive almost immediately after birth or hatching
monotropy
the view that the infant has a basic need to form an attachment with one significant person
oedipus complex
young boy develops sexual feelings toward his mother but realises that his father is a major competitor for her sexual affections
castration complex
where the young boy fears castration at the hands of his father
electra complex
where little girls develop feelings toward their father and fear retribution at the hands of their mother
reaction formation
the individual may react often unconsciously to negative aspects of their personality
humanistic theory
emphasises that humans have free will and are motivated to fulfil their potential
zygote
fertalization to week 2
embryo
week 2 to week 12
foetus
week 12 to birth
morula
(day 3) ball of 16 cells cell differentiation starts
blastula
day 4-7, cavity arises, embryo arises out of inner cells implantation in uterus
gastrulation
week 2 the formation of the 3 germ layers by migration and differentiation of blastula cells
ectoderm
skin hair and nervous sytem
mesoderm
muscles and bones
endoderm
most other organs
neurulation
week 3 the formation of the neural plate, neural groove and neural tube from the ectoderm
neurogenesis
birth of new neurons, differentiation and migration of cells from neural tube
complete little human, organogenesis is finished in week..
8
rating reflex
first moving away from touch later towards it
vestibular apparatus
(in the inner ear) muscle tension, hearing vision and feeling
kangaroo method
skin to skin contact, baby moves together with parent
critical period
per in which specific development is optimal, system is vulnerable for lesions
crossectional design
not the same children, measuring children at different ages
constructivism, development of new perceptual abilities through interaction of
biological maturation and the child actively exploring the external world
ehtology
approach which empasizes the evolutionary origins of many behaviour that are important for survival
mechanism
(causation) “how does this behaviour occur in an individual?”
adaptive value
(function) why is this behaviour adaptive for the species?
ontogeny
(development) how does this behaviour arise in an individual?
phylogeny
(evolution) how does this behaviour arise in the species?
id
motions, impulses, desires
ego
mediation between reality and desire
superego
the conscious
insecure resistant
child keeps crying when caregiver comes back, resisting comfort
ambivalent
they seek contact with caregiver, but also hit and kick caregiver
insecure disorganized
do not know how to react, seem to be absent minded, repeating behaviour, not really playing and exploring
genetic epistemology (Piaget)
study of formation (genesis) of knowledge and how we know what we know (epistemology)
assimilation
integrating of new experiences into preexisting schemes
accommodation
modification of preexisting schemes in order to adapt to the environment
reflexive schemes
use of innate reflexes
primary circular reactions (1-4 m)
focused on own body not external world, repetitive behaviour
secondary circular reactions
focused on external world, repetitive behaviour (grasping, dropping object)
coordination of secondary chemes
goal directed behaviour, combining two schemes , children still make a not b error
A not B error occurs probably because
incomplete object permanence, mental representation present but no response perseveration
tertiary circular reactions
12 to 18 months, exploring new possibilities of objects, repetitive behaviour, no longer a not b error
mental representations/ beginning of thought
invention of new means through mental combination (trial and error no longer necessary), object permanence is fully understood
altirical species
in which the young are incapable of moving around on their own and are dependent on their parents for food and safety
precocial species
in which the young are physically mobile and able from the moment of birth or hatching
nativism
view that many skills or abilities are native or hard wired into the brain at birth, the result of genetic inheritance
empiricism
view that humans are not born with built in core knowledge or mental content and that all knowledge results from learning and experience
standardised test
test os a psych construct such as personality
genetic determinism
the hypothesis that people come who they are as a consequence of their genetic inheritance
familial resemblance
the resemblance between relatives whose genetic relationship to each other is known
missing heritability
the failure to find any of the genes associated with cognitive abilities
environmental drift
changes in developmental functions that result from and are in the direction of changing environments
flynn effect
an increase in the average intelligence test scores over generations
ravens progressive matrices
a culture free non verbal intelligence test with items arranged in order of difficulty
neonate
infant less than a month old
apoptosis
programmed cell death
neural plate
thickening of endoderm cells that will give rise to the brain
neural tube
a hollow structure in the embryo that gives rise to the brain and spinal column
chemosensory system
encompasses both the gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell) senses
colostrum
the breast fluid that preceded true milk. rich in minerals and antibodies
transnatal learning
learning that occurs during the prenatal period which is remembered during the postnatal period
perinatal
the period just before and after birth
dna methylation
proces with an important role in gene regulation, consisting of the addition of methyl groups to dna
developmental programming
the hypothesis that prenatal conditions have detrimental effects on health into adulthood
ultradian rhythm
rhythms or cycles that repeat in less than 24 hour period
maturation
aspects of development that are largely under genetic control and hence largely uninfluenced by environmental factors
paradigm
pattern or sample, the term is now used to a theoretical or philosophical framework in any scientific discipline
organismic world view
the idea that people are inherently active and continually interacting with the environment
mechanistic world view
the idea that a person can be represented as being like am machine, which is passive until stimulated by the environment
cohort
group of people who were raised in the same environment or who share certain demographic characteristics
micro genetic method
method that examines change as it occurs and involves individual children being tested, typically over a short period d of time so that the density of observations is high compared with the typical longitudinal study
marker task
method designed to elicit a behaviour with a known neural basis
catharsis hypothesis
the argument that watching aggressive tendencies in others will reduce your own feelings of agression
discontinuous (step) function
where development takes place in a series of stages, where each new stage appears to be qualitatively different from the preceding (and following) stages
u shaped functions
behaviour where ability is very good, then decreases and the increases again. or other way around
visual acuity
the ability to make fine discriminations between the elements in the visual array
visual accommodation
the ability to focus on objects irrespective of their distance form the eye
subjective contour
when only parts of an object are presented, the remaining contours are filled in in order that the complete shape can be perceived
intonation
the rhythmic pattern of speech
violation of expectation technique
infants are shown an event and are then shown two new events, one of which is consistent with everyday reality (possible) and the other inconsistent (impossible). infants look longer at impossible event
subitising
ability to perceive directly the number of items without consciously counting them or using another form of calculation
response perseveration
repeating a preciously learned response usually when it is no longer appropriate
mind mindedness
caregivers who are bale to read their infants signals appropriately.
autonomous attachment
adults who give coherent web balanced account of their attachment experiences. showing valuing of close personal relationships
dismissing attachment
adults who deny the importance of attachment experiences and cannot recall childhood events and emotions
preoccupied attachment
adults who are unable to move on from their childhood experiences
unresolved attachment
adults who have not been able to resolve feelings relating to the death of a loved one or trauma
epistemology
study of origins of knowledge and how we know what we know
equilibration
a state in which children schemes are in balance and are undisturbed by conflict
symbolic function substag
children acquire the ability to mentally represent objects that are not physically present
intuitive substage
(from 4-7) when children begin to classify order and quantify in a more systematic manner
rational imitation
where infants produce an action that they think the adult intended to do, rather than what the adult actually did
seriation task
putting items in a coherent or logical order
transitive inference
relation between two or more premises, that leads to an inference that is logically necessary
class inclusion
the ability to coordinate and reason about parts and wholes simultaneously in recognising relations between classes and subclasses
realism
believing that things are as they appear and not what they might (saying that a sponge that looks like a rock really is a rock)
overlapping waves
in which at any one time the child has a number of strategies that can be used to solve problems. over time less efficient strategies are replaced by more effective ones
guided participation
children ability to learn from interaction with others
ontogenesis
development of the individual
fylogenesis
development of the species
s structure
surface structure , actual spoken sentence (different in different languages
d structure
deep structure, abstract representation of a sentence (the same in different languages)
overregularisation
when a previously learned rule is applied in the wrong situation ‘thinked’ instead of ‘thought’. children overregularize applying syntactic rules (d structures (I goed to the cinema, I seed my friends)
Chomsky’s poverty of the stimulus argument
parents repeat ungrammatical sentences, parents even reinforce ungrammatical sentences
pragmatic system
turn taking
phonological system
speech perception and production
syntactic system
understanding and producing grammar
semantic system
understanding the meaning of words
reflexive vocalisations
birth to 2 months, crying
cooing and laughing
2 to 4 months, laughing
babbling and vocal play
4-6 months, producing phonemes
canonical babblin
start of language, 6-10 months,
modulated babbling
10 months on, seem to talk but not understandable.
one word period
10-18 months
two words period
18-24 months, after 24 months ; rapid improvement of syntax
proto conversations
interaction sbetween adults and infants in which the adults tend to vocals when the infants are not vocalising, or after the infant has finished vocalizing
proto-imperative
occurs when infants point to an object and then alternate thei race between the object and the adult until they obtain the desired object
proto declarative
occurs when infants use pointing or looking to direct an adults attention toward the object
speech stream
the undifferentiated series of words that are produced when we communicate
phoneme
smallest unit of speech that can affect meaning
categorical perception
where perceptually discriminable stimuli are treated as belonging to the same category. for ex. in a foreign language you are less able to hear certain differences between spoken words properly while someone from its native language can do this easily
reflexive vocalisations
the first sounds reduced by infants incl cries coughs burps and sneezes
canonical
the usual normal and natural state of things. canonical babbling refers to babbling sounds made by infants around 6-10 months, when vowels and consonants are combined in such a way the they sound like words
manual babbling
found in deaf children
modulated babbling
final period of babbling and language play, appears around 10 months on and is characterised by a variety of sound combinations, stress and intonation patterns and overlap Sith the beginning of meaningful speech
syntax
manner in which words and parts of words are related to ne another to produce grammatical sentences
s structure
syntax of a sentence. can have more than one meaning
d strucutre
abstract representation of a sentence, or the actual meaning that the sentence is trying to convey
overgeneralisation
create a new verb by adding the suffix ‘-ing’ ‘ I am balareening.’
comprehension
the language children can understand, distinguished from production
overextension
extending the meaning of a word too broadly,
underextension
extending the meaning of a word to too few instances
semantic system
a system that categorises words in relation to their meaning
cnceptual shift
a large qualitative change in an individuals cognitive processes
representational ability
the ability to form a mental representation of an event or an object
performance limitations
limitations that are associated with the challenges presented by the task being ask to that their performance may not reflect their underlying competence
modularity
the view that we have separate modules for different abilities, face perception, understanding minds, numerical abilities
cross-cultural study
study which aims to examine differences that arise purely from culture
wings triad of impairments
impairments of social relationships, communication and imagination characteristic of autistic behaviour
orthography
writing system. used to describe any aspect of print or spelling
morpheme
unit of meaning
mora
rhythmic unit in languages like japan sees that can be either a syllable or part of a syllable.
syllable
the smallest unit of a word whose pronunciation forms a rhythmic break when spoken
phonological skills
ability to detect and manipulate sounds at the phonetic syllabic and intra syllabic levels
intrasyllabic units
unit fo speech that are smaller than syllables but larger than phonemes. onset and rime are two examples
onset
onset of a syllable is the consonant the ‘h’ in ‘hat’
rime
the vowel sound of a syllable plus any consonants that follow
letter sound associations
where one letter represents one sound or phoneme
pseudo words
none existent but pronounceable non word
morph-phonemic
description of orthographies in which there are regular relationships between letters or groups of letters and morphemes as well as sounds
genitive
possessive word, for ex the apostrophe ‘s in the boy’s jumper indicates that the jumper belongs to the boy
inflectional morphemes
affixes whose presence and absence provide essential info about words. bijv bij meervoud
cardinality
the numerical principle that states that any set of items with a particular number is equal in unity to any other set with the same number of items in it
ordinality
the numerical principle that states that numbers come in an order scale of magnitude
one-to-one principle
the principle that when counting. set of objects each object must be counted once and one only
stable order principle
the principle that number words must be produced in a set order
heteronomous moralitity
the first stage of moral reasoning in which children believe that right and wrong are determined by powerful adult figures
instrumental morality
the second stage, individuals become aware that other people have intentions and desires and that there re two sides to every argument
interpersonal normative morality
the third stage, referred to as good boy/girl orientation. individuals seek to be viewed as good and feel guilt when it is likely that others will condemn their behaviour
social system morality
law and orientation fourth stage, individuals recognise that all members of society have intentions and pursue goals, but they understand that rules and laws are necessary in order for society to function and to prevent anarchy
human rights and social welfare morality
final stage of moral judgement, social contract orientation stage. individuals who have reached this stage make use of ethical principals to guide moral judgments
attribution
the belief one holds as to why people carry out a particular action or behaviour
encoding with hypothesis
different info about faces is represented in memory by children at different ages. suggested that young children rely on info about individual features in recognising faces whereas older children and adults use info about the configuration of the features
features processing
tendency to process the separate features of the face, as opposed to perceiving the relationship between parts
configural processing
processing that pays particular attention to the overall layout of individual features
crystallised intelligence
the store of info, skills and strategies acquired through education and prior experience, remains stable when waging
deductive reasoning
drawing specific conclusions from general premises
inductive reasoning
creating a general principle or conclusion from specific examples, that is drawing a general conclusion from specific premises
syllogism
comprises two statements and a conclusion that is derived from these previous statements
analogical reasoning
resolving a problem by comparing it to a similar problem that has been solved previously
second order analogy
an analogy that requires the use of crystallised intelligence. in order to make the connections, one must be able to derive a relationship that is not inherent within the anology
interpropositional thinking
where the individual is able to relate one or more parts of a proposition to another part to arrive at a solution to a problem
intrapropositional thinking
the thought of the child in piagets concrete operations stage of development, which includes concrete content rather than abstract symbols.
hypothetic-deductive reasoning
the ability to develop theories in an attempt to explain certain phenomena, generate hypotheses based on the theories, and systematically devise tests to confirm or refute these hypothese
combinatory thought
taking more than one factor into consideration
domain-specific
knowledge that can only be applied to specific situations that fall within the same domain
intuitive scientists
the idea that we are all capable of constructing common sense theories to explain how the world works, and are able to conduct ‘experiments’ to test them
sociocognitive conflict
(cognitive) conflict that arises as a result of a social interaction, two peers having a different understanding of a math problem
cognitive conflict
arises when there are two or more competing solutions to a situation or problem
peer facilitation effects
pairing of two children can have a positive impact on children later individual performance
intermental plane
concerning knowledge that is possessed between people
intramental plane
concerning knowledge that has been internalised an is possessed by the individual
intergenerational cycle of difficulties
the various implicit and explicit non-verbal and verbal ways parents communicate their dramatic experiennes and there experiences of shared life events
risk accumilation
the way in which multiple risk factors have a cumulative effect on child outcomes
cumulative risk theory
the sum of risk factors rather than any single risk is what leads to dysfunction because it overwhelms the adaptive capacities of the individual
risk specificity
the specific characteristics of an individual risk factor, both in terms of its specific effect and in terms of how init it interacts with specific child outcomes
moderator (interactive) effects model
models based on interactive relationship between protective/vulnerabiillty factor and risk factors
main effects model
models of resilience in which single factors are identified as determining whether a given child exposed to a risk has a good or a poor outcome
mediator effects models
models that explore the role of intervening or intermediate variables on the effects of risks
retributive justice
direct sanctions against bullies that are intended to reduce the incidence of bullying
restorative justice
range of practices which focus on the offender or bullying child being made aware of the victims feelings and the harm they have caused, and making some agreed reperation
lexical development
development of vocabulary
atypical trajectory
a sequence of development that departs from the typical sequence
amniocentesis
medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis o chromosomal abnormalities and fatal infections
executive function of autism
view that autism is due to a deficit in executive function (inappropriate responses etc)
central coherence hypothesis of autism
the view that autism is due to lack of central coherence, which is reflected in the tendency to process info piecemeal rather than to integrate it
microsystem
individual child, their characteristics and the settings where interpersonal relationship ,relevant at different points in the lifespan take place
mesosystem
relationship between different Microsystems, the relation between school and family, peers and religious activity, neighbourhood and health and so on
exosystem
the variety of influences like the mass media, neighbours and family friends
macrosystem
refers to cultural level of influence
chronosystem
refers to sociocultural events over the life course
vygotsky
idea that the social environment plays an important role in the cognitive development of a child
piaget
sees children as active thinkers who interact with the environment , thinks of development in stages
ainsworth
theory concerning attachment types
main and Solomon fourth attachment style
insecure disorganised
false beliefs test used to
used to assess whether children can empathize with other people’s thoughts. To successfully complete these tests, a child must be able to empathize with the thoughts of another person, because the information that is provided to the child differs from the information that is provided to another person, children pass it when they’re about 4
language production, babies
can already make controlled sounds at 4-6 months
vertical decalage
Piaget, this is where the child has a level of understanding at one level (perhaps level of action) that has to be reconstructed at a later age at a different stage or level of undershtanding (perhaps level of thought)
horizontal decalage
non synchronous development of children on Piaget tasks (cases in which children may succeed on conservation may succeed on conservation of number tasks but not on conservation of continuous quantity
mentalizing network
mPFC, temporal parietal junction, ‘what does the other think? recognise social ability in others’, keeps growing as we age
amygdala network
recognition and evaluation of emotional and social stimuli, increased response to emotional pictures in adolescents, is spared when getting older, but affected with people who have AD
social brain consists of
amygdala network, mirror network, empathy network and mentalizing network
fluid intelligence
the ability to store and manipulate new info, get influenced when aging
hippocampus
shows large age related changes, role is to form vivid and detailed memories
alzheimers disease
episodic, working memory and executive functions impaired, semantic (world knowledge) somewhat spared (with mild AD)
psychoanalysis
view that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious factors (Freud)
microgenetic method
method that examines change as it occurs and involves individual children being tested repeatedly, typically over a short period of time so that the density of observations is high compared with the typical longitudinal study
equifinality
mulitple risk factors can lead to the same problem
multifinality
risk factor can have multiple effects
heritability
percentage of variance in a trait that can be explained by genetic differences between individuals
erikson theory
psychosocial stages, social conflict theory
statistical learning
(ex. of a general learning mechanism (non-specific to language) use of transitional probabilities in word segmentation
concurrence asusmption (new structure of thinking)
simultaneously in different domains
abruptness assumption ( new structure of thinking )
sudden disconunous shift
empathy network
amygdala orbitofrontal cortex anterior ínsula. feeling what other people feel
mirror network
recognition of other peoples actions planning own actions
truancy
children who don’t go to school
school anxiety
fear to go to school
risk focused programmes
intervention programmes that attempt to reduce risk exposure
asset-focused programmes
attempt to directly provide higher quality and or quantity of assets in children life
process-oriented programmes
programmes that attempt to improve the most important adaptational systems for children such as key relationship, intellectual functioning and self-regulation systems
