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Cognition 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

motor system

A

includes the components of the central and peripheral nervous system along with the muscles joint and bones that enable movement

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2
Q

well defined problem

A

problem in which starting conditions, actions available and goals are all completely specified

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3
Q

utility

A

is the subjective value of an option

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4
Q

two system

A

view is that there are two modes of thought; system 1 and system 2

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5
Q

torque

A

is a measure from physics that measures rotational force such as when muscles ap
ply a force for a limb to rotate about a joint centre

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6
Q

thinking

A

process of mental explroation of possible acions and states of the world

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7
Q

system 2

A

a hypothetical system that carreis out slow deliberate thinking

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8
Q

system 1

A

is a hypothetical system that carries out rapid intuitive thinking

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9
Q

subjective probability

A

is hw likely a person believes an outcome to be irrespective of the objective probability

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10
Q

status quo bias

A

a tendency to prefer the current state of affairs

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11
Q

state action space

A

is a representation of how problems can be transformed from starting state through intermediate states to the goal

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12
Q

single attribute

A

decision problems involve alternatives that vary in only one dimension

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13
Q

set

A

is a tendency to persist with one approach to a problem

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14
Q

riskless

A

decisions involve choices where the outcomes of the choices are known with certainty

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15
Q

risk seeking

A

is a preference for risky choices even when riskless alternatives of higher value are available

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16
Q

risk aversion

A

is avoiding risky choices even when a higher expected value than riskless alternatives

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17
Q

risk

A

a decision involves risk if there is a probability that one of the options could lead to negative outcomes for the decision maker

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18
Q

restructuring

A

is changing how one represents a problem

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19
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

involves juding frequency or probability of an event or object by how representative or typical it is of its category

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20
Q

recurrent networks

A

are a type of artificial neural network with connections between units arranged so to obtain a cycle of activation. this design allows a temporal context to be designed into computation

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21
Q

recognition primed decision

A

is expert knowledge based decision making in which cues in the situation are recognised as indicating particular actions

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22
Q

reasoning

A

is the cognitive process of deriving new information from old information

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23
Q

prospect theory

A

a decision theory stressing reltive gains and losses

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24
Q

progress deepening

A

is searching a state-action space by using depth first search to a lmited depth. when depth limit is reached search backs up to start and repeats, avoiding previously eplored branches and so on until the whole space has been searched up to the initial deth limit. if a solution is not found, increase depth limit, and repeat until the goal is reached

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25
Q

problem space

A

is an abstract representation of possible states of a problem

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26
Q

problem

A

is a situation in which you have a goal but do nwt know how to achieve it

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27
Q

parallel processing

A

is the ability to divide thee process of solving a problem into multiple parts and to work simultaneously on each part

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28
Q

optimal control theory

A

is the ability to divide thee process of solving a problem into multiple parts and to work simultaneously on each part

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29
Q

normative approaches

A

attempt to establish ideal ways of deciding that will give the best decision possible. economists have tended to develop normative models

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30
Q

non-adversary problems

A

are problems in which the solver is dealing with inert problem materials with no rational component

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31
Q

neuroeconomics

A

the study of neural processes underlying economic decisions

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32
Q

naturalistic decision making

A

refers to making rela life decisions in the field

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33
Q

multi attribute decision problem

A

is a decision task in which the alternatives vary in many dimensions or aspects

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34
Q

motor systems

A

includes the components of the central and peripheral nervous systems aliong with the muscles joints and bones that enable movement

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35
Q

motor primitives

A

are the basis set of elemental movements that serve as building blocks for an animas repertoire of movements

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36
Q

mirror neurons

A

neurons with the special property that they reoresent both the sensory aspects of perceiving actions as well as motor aspects of how to produce the action

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37
Q

loss aversion

A

is a key idea of prospect theory that there is greater dislike of losing utility than liking for gainng the same degree of utility

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38
Q

knowledge rich problems

A

are problems that require extensive specialist knowledge

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39
Q

knowledge lean problems

A

are problems such as puzzles that do not require specialist knowledge

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40
Q

inverse problem

A

in vision is where there are more than one interpretation of the 3d world given the 2d image information

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41
Q

invariance

A

the principle that choices between alternatives should not be affected by how the options are described

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42
Q

interactive activation

A

a term used to describe the pattern of network activity generated bt excitatoy and inhibitory interactions of feature detectors and object representations

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43
Q

insight

A

is a restructuring of a problem that makes the solution obvious and understandable

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44
Q

incubation

A

a period in which a problem is set aside, it may be immediate, directly after presentation or ‘delayed’ after a period of conscious work

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45
Q

ill defined problem

A

is a prblem in which starting conditions or actions available or goals are not completely specified

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46
Q

ideomotor theory

A

relates how thinking abot the results of an action can give rise to producing the action

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47
Q

homologous

A

in biology means to have the corresponding psition, structure and possibly function. it is common to consider across species that anatomical parts are homologous. for brain regions this is important for using data obtained in say monkeys to predict relations n human brain

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48
Q

heuristic

A

a problem solving method that often finds a low effort solution but is not guaranteed to solve

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49
Q

goal-subgoal space

A

is a representation of how an overal problem gola can be broken down into subgoals and sub-subgoals

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50
Q

Gestalt approach

A

the theory proposes that the whole of an object or scene is more important than its individual parts.

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51
Q

geneplore

A

is a model for creative thinking which stresses the role of a generative and exploratory phase

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52
Q

functional fixity

A

is a difficulty in thinking of a novel use for a familiar object

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53
Q

framing

A

effects arise when irrelevant features of a situation affect the decisions that are made

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54
Q

forward models

A

are used to predict the relationship between actions and their consequences. given a motor command the forward model predicts the resulting behaviour of the body and the world

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55
Q

feeling of warmth

A

rating is a rating of how close the solver feels to prblem solution, taken at intervals during the solving process

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56
Q

expertise

A

the accumulated high level knowledge that allows outstanding performance in complex problem areas

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57
Q

expected value

A

the longterm average value of a repeated decision which is determined by the probability and size of the outcome. so if the chance of winning 100 euro in a gamble is 0.5, then the expected value is 50.

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58
Q

equilibrium point hypothesis

A

a theory of morot control that emphasizes how the problem of control can be simplified by taking into account muscle properties

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59
Q

endowment effect

A

is a tendency to over-value a possessed object and to require more money to sell it than to buy it in the first place

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60
Q

dynamical systems

A

aproach to motor contro emphasizes interaction between the body and the environment eand uses special mathematics that describe how systems behaviour changes over time

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61
Q

detour problems

A

are problems in which the hill climbing method does not work well, as the solver has to move away from the goal at some stage

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62
Q

depth first search

A

is searching a state-action space by generating one state only from each intermediate state

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63
Q

degrees of freedom

A

of a joint are the number of ways it can move.

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64
Q

decision making

A

is the cognitive process of choosing between alternative possible actions

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65
Q

critical incident analysis

A

is gaining information about naturalistic decision making by analysing detailed recalls of recent important decisions

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66
Q

creative synthesis task

A

is a task in which participants have to combine presented shapes to make novel interisting combinations

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67
Q

creative

A

in relation to a product is generally defined as novel to the producer of the product and valuable in some way, alternatively, that the product is novel and meets a goal

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68
Q

conjunction fallacy

A

is the mistaken belief that the conjunction of two events (a and b) is more likely than either of one a or b

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69
Q

common coding

A

is a theory of perception and action production which holds that both production and perception share certain representations of actions in the world

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70
Q

cognitive sandwich

A

describes the view that perception and action are like slices of bread that surround cognition as the filling of a sandwhich

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71
Q

breadth first search

A

searching a state-action space by generating all possible states from each intermediate state

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72
Q

brainstorming

A

is stimulating the production of unusual ideas, by stressing quantity as agianst quality and deferment of evaluation of ideas

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73
Q

base rate

A

of an event is the overall probability of the event in a population; so the base rte of engineers in the uk is the probability that a randomly selected person in the uk will be engineer

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74
Q

basal ganglia

A

are a group of neurons in the base of the forebrain that are connected to cortex and involved in action selection. Disorders of the basal ganglia are related to movement disorders such as parkinsons disease

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75
Q

availability heuristic

A

involves judging frequency or probability of events by hw easy it is to bring the events to mind

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76
Q

associative chain theory

A

is a behaviourists theory that explains how sequnces of action arise from linking together associatios between individual action components

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77
Q

apraxia

A

neurological condition typically resulting from brain damage where a person loses the ability to perform activities that they are physically able and willing to do

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78
Q

algorithm

A

a problem solving method that is guaranteed to solve but may do so only with high mental load

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79
Q

affect heuristic

A

involves substituting feelings (positive or negative) for target attributes in decision problems

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80
Q

adversary problems

A

are problems in which the solver has to deal with a rational opponent as in board games

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81
Q

reasoning

A

is the cognitive process of deriving new info from old info

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82
Q

deductive reasoning

A

drawing logically necessary conclusions from given information

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83
Q

inductive reasoning

A

process of inferring probable conclusions from given information

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84
Q

premises

A

statements assumed to be true from which conclusions are drwan

85
Q

valid

A

arguments are those in which the conclusions must be true if the premises are true

86
Q

propositional reasoning

A

reasoning about statements connected by logical relations such as ‘and’ ‘or’ ‘not’ ‘if’

87
Q

syllogistic reasoning

A

is reasoning about groups/sets using statements connected by logical realations of ‘some’ ‘none’ ‘all’ and ‘some not’

88
Q

inference rules

A

are rules for reaching a conclusion given a particular pattern of propositions modus ponens which states that given if p then q and not q we can infer not p

89
Q

mental models approach

A

the view that people tackle logical reasoning problems by forming mental representations of possible states of the world and draw inferences from those representations

90
Q

atmosphere effect

A

a tendency to draw conclusions in syllogisms that are over influenced by the form of the premises rather than the logic of the argument

91
Q

four figures of syllogism

A

are the four possible layout of terms which give four syllogistic figures

92
Q

figural bias

A

the tendency to be influenced by the order in which the information is presented in the premises when attempting to solve a syllogistic reasoning problem.

93
Q

belief bias

A

a tendency to accept invalid but believable conclusions and to reject valid but unbelievable conclusions to arguments

94
Q

hypothesis testing

A

is assessing hypotheses for truth/falsity against data

95
Q

hypothesis generation

A

deriving possible hypotheses from data for later testing

96
Q

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

A

is a form of inductive reasoning in which a hypothesis is tested by deducing necessary consequences of the hypothesis and determining whether the consequences are true (supporting the hypothesis) or false disconfirming or falsifying the hypothesis)

97
Q

matching bias

A

the four card task, is choosing the cards mention in the rule

98
Q

social contract

A

theory proposes that rules expressing payment of costs for privileges will be easily solved in 4 card tasks as the correct choices would uncover cheating

99
Q

deontic rules

A

are rules regarding obligations and typically involve terms such as ‘should’ ‘must’ ‘ought’ ‘may’ and so on

100
Q

confirmation bias

A

in hypothesis testing, is a tendency to seek out and attend only infomration consistent with the hypothesis while ignoring falsifying information

101
Q

syntax

A

refers to the rules governing the ways words can be combined to create meaningful sentences

102
Q

content words

A

are words that provide meaning to the sentence ; these contrast with function words which do the grammatical work of the sentence

103
Q

language production

A

refers to a number of processes by which we convert a thought into language input, in the form of speech , sign language or writing

104
Q

social cognition

A

refers to the ways in which poeple make sense of htemselves and others in order to function effectively ina social world

105
Q

conceptually driven

A

or top-down processes reflect the influence of higher order cognitive processes sucha s thoughts, beliefs and expectations

106
Q

communication

A

refers to any means by which info is shared

107
Q

mental lexicon

A

our store of knowledge about words and their uses

108
Q

linguistic universals

A

are linguistic features said to be found in all languages

109
Q

tonal languages

A

use changes in tone to alter the meaning of the word

110
Q

functional reference

A

refers to the use by animals of a specific call to stand for a specific object or threat

111
Q

phones

A

the basic speech sounds

112
Q

phonectic

A

study of speech soudns

113
Q

phoneme

A

smallest meaningful sound unit within language

114
Q

allophones

A

are phonetic variants of the same phoneme

115
Q

phonotactic rules

A

stipulate which combinations of sounds are permitted in a language

116
Q

morphemes

A

the meaning units of language

117
Q

morphology

A

the level of linguistic analysis concerned with morphemes and their role within words

118
Q

free morpheme

A

a morpheme that can stand alone as a word

119
Q

bound morpheme

A

a morpheme that cannot form word on its own, but forms a word when attached to free morpheme

120
Q

function words

A

provide grammatical structure that shows how content words relate to each other within a sentence

121
Q

semantics

A

study of meaning

122
Q

productive of language

A

refers to the ability to generate novel utterances

123
Q

phrase

A

a group of words referring to a particular idea

124
Q

slang

A

describes an informal pattern of speech that is considered to be non-standard

125
Q

subject

A

of a sentence is the word or words that gives what the sentence is about or performs the action

126
Q

object

A

of a sentence is the word or words that receives the actions or is acted on by the subject of the sentence

127
Q

recursion

A

refers to the ability to extend sentences infinitely by embedding phrases within sentences

128
Q

discourse

A

refers to multisentence speech and includes dialogue, conversation and narrative

129
Q

pragmatics

A

refers to understanding of the communicative functions of language and the conventions that govern language use

130
Q

aphasia

A

term given to a group of speech disorders that occur following brain injury

131
Q

disfluency

A

hesitation or disruption to the normal fluency of speech. by contrast, the term ‘dysfluency’ is used to refer to an abnormal disruption to fluency such as following brain damage.

132
Q

clause

A

a part of a sentence containing a subject and verb

133
Q

paraphraxes

A

slips of the tongue or other actions originally thought to reflect unconscious motives

134
Q

lexical bias

A

refers to tendency for phonological speech errors to result in real words

135
Q

feeling of knowing

A

is a subjective sense of knowing that we know a word, and is an example of meta-memory our knowledge about the contents of our memories

136
Q

lemma

A

an abstract word form that contains syntactic and semantic information about the word

137
Q

lexeme

A

the basic lexical units that gives the word morpho-phonoligical properties

138
Q

non-plan internal errors

A

occur when the intrusion is external to the planned content of the utterance

139
Q

neurolinguistics

A

the study of the relationship of brain function to language processing

140
Q

lateralization of function

A

refers to the asymmetric represenation of congitive function in the cerebral hemispheres of humans and higher primates

141
Q

dichotic listening task

A

one where different stimuli are presented to each ear

142
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation

A

a non-invasive method of temporarily exciting or inhibiting cortical areas

143
Q

electrocortical stimulation

A

of the surface of the cortex allows a surgeon to locate, and avoid damage to, brain regions associated with a particular cognitive function

144
Q

wernicke-geschwind model

A

a simplified model of language function used as the basis for classifying aphasia disorders

145
Q

crossed aphasia

A

refers to the language dysfunction following right hemisphere damage in a right-handed individual

146
Q

broca’s aphasia

A

an acquired language disorder characterized by non-fluent speech, reduced speech output and problems with grammar processing

147
Q

global aphasia

A

an acquired language disorder involving extreme impairment of language function

148
Q

non-fluent aphasia

A

when the patients speech output is reduced laboured or absent

149
Q

wernicke’s aphasia

A

a fluent aphasia, characterized by fluent but meaningless output and repetition erros

150
Q

fluent aphasia

A

when the patients speech is fluent but not meaningful

151
Q

conduction aphasia

A

when the patient has a specific difficulty affecting the repetition of speech

152
Q

anomic aphasia

A

when the patient has a specific difficulty with word retrieval

153
Q

prosody

A

refers to the rhythm, intonation and stress patterns in speech

154
Q

invariance problem

A

reflects the variation in the production of speech sounds across speech contexts

155
Q

co-articulation

A

tendency for a speech sound to be influenced by sounds preceding or following it

156
Q

segmentation problem

A

refers to detection of distinct words in what is a continuous string of speech sounds

157
Q

phonotactic constraints

A

describe the language specific sound goupings that occur in a language

158
Q

onset

A

of a word is the initial phoneme or phonemes. the rime follows the onset

159
Q

slips of the ear

A

occur when we misperceive a word or phrase in speech

160
Q

categorical perception

A

the perception of stimuli on a sensory continuum as falling into distinct categories

161
Q

voicing

A

when speech sounds are produced while the vocal cords are vibrating

162
Q

right ear advantage

A

for speech sounds refers to the finding that language sounds are processed more efficiently when presented to the right ear compared to the left

163
Q

phoneme restoration effect

A

describes the tendency to hear a complete word even when a phoneme has been removed from the input

164
Q

mcgurk effect

A

a perceptual illusion that illustrates the interplay of visual and auditory processing speech perception

165
Q

lexical decision task

A

a task where participants are presented with a letter string and they must decide whether or not it is a word

166
Q

localist representation

A

where a single unit represents a particular concept

167
Q

lexical access

A

the process by which we access stored knowledge about words

168
Q

word naming tasks

A

require participants to name a word while repsonse time is measured

169
Q

sentence verification tasks

A

present a sentence frame with a target word, and the participant must decide if the word fits in the frame

170
Q

open class words

A

content words such as nouns verbs and adjectivesn new words can be added to this class of words

171
Q

closed class words

A

such as articles prepositions remain stable over time and are not added to

172
Q

repetition priming

A

refers to the finding that repeated exposure to a word leads to faster responses in a lexical decision task

173
Q

homographs

A

words with the same spelling but more than one meaning and pronunciation

174
Q

parsing

A

the process by which we assign a syntactic struccture to a sentence

175
Q

phrase structure tree

A

a graphic representation of the syntactic structure of a sentence

176
Q

garden path sentence

A

grammatically correct but ambiguous sentence that biases the readers initial parsing

177
Q

minimal attachment

A

introduces new items into the phrase structure using as few syntactic nodes as possible

178
Q

late closure

A

attaches incoming material to the phrase that is currently being processed

179
Q

transparant or shallow orthography

A

uses a one to one correspondence between the letters and sounds

180
Q

opaque or orthographically deep

A

languages are those where the relationship between letters and sounds is more complex

181
Q

word superiority effect

A

refers to the finding that a target letterw ithin a letter string is detected more readily when the string forms a word

182
Q

saccades

A

fast movements of the eye made when reading or scanning an image

183
Q

grapheme to phoneme conversion

A

route allows us to sound out words based on letter sound correspondences

184
Q

lexical or direct route

A

to reading involves the selection of a word from the lexicon

185
Q

non semantic reading

A

a pattern of reading deficit whereby the patient can read an irregular word (which cannot be sounded out) and yet cannot access its meaning

186
Q

pure word defness

A

a deficit affecting the ability to recognize speech sounds while comprehension of non speech sounds remains intact

187
Q

pure word meaning deafness

A

the patient can repeat back the word but cannot understand it

188
Q

acquired dyslexia

A

refers to reading difficulties following brain injury

189
Q

surface dyslexia

A

deficit in the reading or irregular words, while the reading of regular words is spared

190
Q

phonological dyslexia

A

affects non-word reading but real words can be read

191
Q

skin conductance

A

reflects changes in the skins ability to conduct electricity in the presence of an emotion eliciting stimulus

192
Q

amygdala

A

linked to fear

193
Q

insula

A

linked with disgust, implicated in aspects of emotion cognition and action

194
Q

limbic system

A

consists of the thalamus hypothalamus hippocampus and amygdala

195
Q

default network

A

network of brain regions that is active when a person is not focused on the external environment

196
Q

salience network

A

involved in monitoring the external and internal environments to allow detection of salient stimuli

197
Q

display rules

A

social conventions governing how when and with whom emotions may be expressed

198
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

part of the peripheral nervous syte and regulates internal organs

199
Q

central nervous system

A

consists of the brain and spinal cord

200
Q

facial feedback hypothesis

A

proposes that feedback from the facial muscles can influence emotional state

201
Q

appraisal theories

A

have in common the assertion that emotions result from our interpretations of or reactions to events

202
Q

attentional bias

A

refers to the tendency for emotional stimuli to capture or draw attention

203
Q

tunnel memory

A

refers to the enhancement of memory of central details with reduced memory of peripheral details

204
Q

network models

A

of memory treat memories as items related in a network which can affect each other through activation

205
Q

state dependent memory

A

refers to the facilitation of memory when the mental or physiological state at encoding and retrieval matches

206
Q

thought congruity

A

the tendency for thoughts and judgmenet to be consistent with mood state

207
Q

processing efficiency theory

A

performance is impaired due to fear of failure costing so much energy that it can not be spend on carrying out the task

208
Q

conscious processing hypothesis

A

performance is impaired because fear of failure disturbs automatic processes

209
Q

omission bias

A

people state that they would feel more responsible for deaths caused by their actions than by their omission

Psychology (10 decks)

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