Operant Conditioning

Question 1

Describe how operant conditioning was developed

Answer 1

Operant conditioning is the second learning theory to be developed.
It was largely developed by Burrhus Frederic Skinner. His research which developed the theory was based upon the principles of earlier research
carried out by Thorndike.
Thorndike (1911) developed a puzzle box with a single exit that could only be opened by a system of levers. A hungry cat was placed in the box and food was
placed just outside. The cat moved around the box, trying to get out because of the food. When
moving around the cat accidently pressed the lever and gradually learned by trial and error how to open the box. Then the cat could get the
food, which acted as the reward. This sort of learning, in which the solution is hit upon by trial and error, and a reward is given so that the behaviour is repeated is called ‘trial- and-error’ learning.
Thorndike called this the law of effect - if the effect of the learning (to get out of the box) is good (obtains food) then the behaviour is learnt and repeated. Learning takes place because of what
happens after the action.

Question 2

Recall key aspects of Skinner’s research and the famous Skinner’s box

Answer 2

Skinner placed the rats into a Skinner box were he able to manipulate the rat’s behaviour through reinforcements. Skinner focused on manipulating the rat’s behaviour when they were hungry. Therefore, the box was used to deliver positive and negative reinforcements associated with eating.
As the rats spent time in their environments, they started to learn different aspects about it and how they were punished and rewarded.
•If the rats carried out a desired behaviour, then they would be rewarded with food. For example,
the rats had to learn that each time they saw a red light and pressed the lever they were rewarded with a food pellet. Thus, the rats learnt over time an association with touching a lever
and receiving a food reward. This increased the likelihood of them pressing the lever.
•Skinner also used an electric shock generator wired to the grid on the floor of the cage to deter the rats from carrying out certain behaviours. This electric shock was used as a punishment. Skinner found if he punished a behaviour in this way the rat became less likely to repeat it.
From these findings Skinner developed the theory of OPERANT CONDITIONING.

Question 3

Skinner believed that behaviour is

shaped by its consequences. He proposed the ABC model of operant conditioning. What is the model?

Answer 3

A = Antecedent
The situation or stimulus that
triggers a behaviour.
B= Behaviour
The response made by the
organism.
C= Consequences 
What happens because of the
behaviour.

Question 4

Define reinforcements

Answer 4

consequences from the environment that increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated. Reinforcers can be positive or negative.

Question 5

Define punishers

Answer 5

consequences from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

Question 6

Define primary reinforcers

Answer 6

These are rewards that are focused on meeting a basic need.
(Shelter, food, drink, warmth,
pleasure)

Question 7

Define secondary reinforcers

Answer 7

these are rewards that can satisfy a basic need, but it is not in itself a basic need.
(money, house points, chocolate)

Question 8

Define positive reinforcements

Answer 8

something good is given in response to the behaviour eg. giving someone chocolate

Question 9

Define negative reinforcements

Answer 9

something bad is taken away in response to the behaviour eg. Given a electric shock until a lever is pressed

Question 10

Mike’s morning alarm goes off at 5:00AM. He hates this noise and reaches over and hits the
STOP button which stops the alarm noise. He does this every morning when his alarm goes off.
Turning off your morning alarm is an example of negative reinforcement. Explain why this is negative reinforcement. (3 marks)

Answer 10

Negative reinforcement encourages the behaviour by taking something unpleasant away when the desired behaviour is performed. When Mike hits the stop button on his alarm (desired behaviour) the alarm noise which is the unpleasant stimulus is taken away. This negative reinforcement encourages Mike to repeat the behaviour of pressing the STOP button on his alarm.

Question 11

Define positive punishment

Answer 11

Something bad/undesired is given and the unwanted behaviour is stopped

Question 12

Define negative punishment

Answer 12

Something good/desired is taken away and the unwanted behaviour is stopped.

Question 13

Why are punishments is not usually recommended as an effective method to manage behaviour?

Answer 13

A difficulty with punishment is that it does not promote or give information about the desired behaviour it only stops undesirable behaviour.

Question 14

Does Operant Conditioning take account of individual differences?

Answer 14

Skinner suggested that positive and negative reinforcements occur in an individual’s environment and because everyone’s environment is different, this theory accounts for INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.

Question 15

Explain how the issue and debate- Determinism links to Operant Conditioning

Answer 15

Skinner also suggested that individuals are not actually in control of their environments and upbringing. Therefore, Skinner proposed that the concept of freewill was an ‘illusion’: all behaviour is a consequence of learning from the environment which an individual does not have control over.

-Also links to social control as operant conditioning is based on deterministic principles which believe all behaviour can be shaped by environmental forces essentially proposing that human behaviour can be manipulated and therefore subject to social control.

Question 16

Define token economy

Answer 16

A treatment method that provides secondary reinforcement for desirable behaviour that can be saved up or exchange for primary reinforcer.

Question 17

Describe the application of operant conditioning using token economies

Answer 17

Token economies are used in a variety of settings such as schools and prisons, but the main aim is to encourage desired behaviour through a system of reward, and reduce undesired behaviour through withdrawal of rewards or privileges (punishment).
The tokens used in such economies are secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for primary reinforcers. The tokens are therefore given in response
for showing desired behaviour. The more tokens received the better the reward.

Question 18

Give the strengths of methodology used in evidence to support Operant Conditioning

Answer 18

The theory of Operant Conditioning is backed by scientific research. The characteristics of science are clearly demonstrated throughout.
•Empiricism; only directly observable behaviour was studied by Skinner. The data gathered in the research was quantitative and this provides objective statistical evidence to confirm how behaviour is learnt. Furthermore, Skinner’s research was carried out in laboratory settings with a high level of controls. For example, the
use of the Skinner box in particular allowed for the careful manipulation of reward and punishments to be given in a controlled environment to manipulate behaviour which in turn allowed Skinner to establish cause and effect links between reinforcers and behaviour. Therefore, the accuracy of Skinner’s data is high which increases the internal validity of the
research underpinning the theory, thus providing it with credibility.
•Falsifiable: The concepts of the theory, such as reinforcement and punishment are clearly defined allowing testable predictions to be made.
•Reliable: The Skinner box allowed for standardised procedures which enabled Skinner to replicate his research and test whether behaviour is learnt through positive and negative
reinforcers repeatedly with many different rats and pigeons. This confirmed the consistency of
his findings.

Question 19

Give a strengths of applications to support Operant Conditioning

Answer 19

OC has many practical applications in society. It can provide a concrete explanation for how a variety of different behaviours are learnt, such as addiction to drugs and therefore how behaviour can be changed through reinforcements. Therefore, OC is useful in the education and the criminal justice system and in treatments for dysfunctional behaviours. For example,
operant conditioning is used widely in schools in the form of ‘token economy’ systems. Paul and Lentz (1977) showed the benefits of token economy systems for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia and found only 11% needed drug treatment compared to 100% in the control group.

Question 20

Give a weakness of the methodology of operant conditioning

Answer 20

•Generalisability: Skinner’s research used rats and pigeons as participants which lowers the generalisability of the research to humans. Animals have different everyday experiences from humans and they do not have the cognitive abilities of humans e.g. language, therefore their learning experiences will be different. Human learning is much more complex and includes many different cognitive and social factors. Thus, rats and pigeons
are not fully representative of the target population of human beings.
•Ecological validity of the underpinning research can be argued to be low because most organisms learn in far more complex environments than a Skinner box. This limits the credibility
of operant conditioning as an accurate explanation of human behaviour.
•Ethics: It could be argued that Skinner caused unnecessary suffering with his use of electric shocks on his animals. However, the costs to the animals may well be outweighed by the many
applications of this research that have made human life easier. E.g., training of guide dogs

Question 21

Describe a weakness of Operant Conditioning along with an Alternate explanation

Answer 21

The validity of operant conditioning as an accurate explanation of human behaviour is lowered as it can be seen as reductionist. This is because it focuses only on positive and negative reinforcers to explain human behavior and ignores other possible factors involved in behaviour such as biological and cognitive influences. Social Learning Theory provides an alternative explanation of human behavior, including the cognitive elements.

Question 22

Outline the process of learning in a Skinner box

Answer 22

In the Skinner’s box the rats environment was manipulated through reinforcements. The box included positive and negative reinforcements associated with eating. As the rats spent time in their environments they started to learn different aspects about it and how they were punished and rewarded. If the rats were able to carried out a desired behaviour then they would be rewarded with food. Skinner also used the electric shocks generator to deter the rats from carrying out certain behaviours. This was used as a punishment.

Question 23

List The two main types of response

behaviours skinner proposed occurred in operant conditioning.

Answer 23

Reinforcers

Punishments

Question 24

Nisha is a primary school teacher. All the children in her class are well behaved except Nicholas. He always seems to be talking when he should be listening and spends much of his
day doing things that distract, upset or the children around him. Nisha makes sure she watches him carefully all the time and she tells him off every time she catches him being naughty. But his behaviour seems to be getting
worse, not better.
Explain why the punishment given to Nicholas by his teacher is not promoting good behaviour (3marks)

Answer 24

Nisha is rewarding Nicholas’ behaviour by giving him attention each time she tells him off. This attention could be explained as a positive reinforcement
- since Nicholas maybe enjoying the attention. This is a difficulty since Nisha thinks that she is managing the behaviour however she is actually reinforcing it.

Question 25

Jasdeep has broken a window playing football in the living room. He us very anxious about what his parents will say when they find out. When his mother comes home and demands to know what has happened. Jasdeep has a stroke of inspiration and tells her that his little brother Sukhdeep was responsible. His mother goes off to find Sukhdeep and Jasdeep heaves a big sigh of relief. Explian how this incident may shape Jasdeep's future behaviour (3 marks)

Answer 25

This may reinforce Jasdeep's behaviour to blame his brother constantly of something else that may happen in the future on his brother as he was internally rewarded by feeling relief of not being told off.

Question 26

Define response rate

Answer 26

The rate at which the rat press the lever (eg. how hard the rat worked)

Question 27

Define Extinction rate

Answer 27

The rat at which the lever pressing dies out

Question 28

Describe schedules of reinforcement

Answer 28

Skinner proposed that there are different patterns of learning (response rate) and on whether extinction occurs. These are known as schedules of reinforcement and have effects on a new behaviour occurring.

Question 29

What is continuous reinforcement?

Answer 29

continuous reinforcement is when behaviour is rewarded or punished each time it occurs. This is not regarded to be one of the schedules since the reinforcement occurs the whole time. With continuous reinforcement, the response rate is slow, and the extinction rate is fast.

Question 30

What are the four schedules of reinforcement?

Answer 30

* Fixed Ratio Reinforcement * Fixed Interval Reinforcement * Variable ratio Reinforcement * Variable interval Reinforcement

Question 31

Describe Fixed Ratio reinforcement

Answer 31

Fixed ratio means that behaviour is reinforced only after the behaviour occurs a set number of times. E.G. - for every five presses on the lever a reward or punishment could be given. RESPONSE RATE - fast EXTINCTION RATE - Medium

Question 32

Describe Fixed Interval reinforcement

Answer 32

Reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. E.G. - Having a reward or punishment every five minutes RESPONSE RATE - Medium EXTINCTION RATE - Medium

Question 33

Describe Variable Ratio reinforcement

Answer 33

Means that the reinforcement or punishment is given is randomly with regard to the number of responses achieved E.G. being reinforced after 3 responses, then after 7 then after 1 (gambling or fishing) RESPONSE RATE - Fast EXTINCTION RATE -Slow

Question 34

Describe Variable Interval reinforcement

Answer 34

Means that reinforcement is given after variable amounts of time. It can be given at one, two minutes or five minutes E.G- A self-employed person being paid at random times. RESPONSE RATE - fast EXTINCTION RATE - slow

Question 35

Application - Developmental psychology - How children develop through rewards and punishments Identify the schedule of reinforcement for the following scenario: A teacher gives a gold star to pupils for every two pieces of writing they do, up to eight good pieces of writing during the day.

Answer 35

Fixed Ratio reinforcement

Question 36

Application - Developmental psychology - How children develop through rewards and punishments Identify the schedule of reinforcement for the following scenario: A teacher gives out two gold stars to pupils every day, provided they do eight pieces of work, but they do not know at what time they are going to receive their gold stars.

Answer 36

Variable Interval Reinforcement

Question 37

``` Application - Developmental psychology - How children develop through rewards and punishments Identify the schedule of reinforcement for the following scenario: A teacher gives a gold star every two hours in class to each child who has done good work. ```

Answer 37

Fixed Interval Reinforcement

Question 38

Application - Developmental psychology - How children develop through rewards and punishments Identify the schedule of reinforcement for the following scenario: A teacher gives out two gold stars to pupils every day provided they have done eight good pieces of work, but they do not know how many pieces they have to do to get one gold star

Answer 38

Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Question 39

What is behaviour modification?

Answer 39

this is when rewards or punishments are planned so that certain behaviours are produced, and others are dropped. In this way, the behaviour of the individual is modified.

Question 40

One way of modifying behaviour is known as 'shaping'. Define Shaping

Answer 40

Shaping the term used for operant conditioning in the form of rewards or punishment for more complex behaviour. This complex behaviour would not naturally occur so could not be reinforced itself.

Question 41

Describe the process of shaping

Answer 41

Shaping is when behaviour is arrived by: •Rewarding moves towards the desired behaviour •Then, waiting for an action that is nearer to the desired behaviour before a reward is given. •Finally, waiting for the actual behaviour before offering the reinforcement.

Question 42

Give an example of shapin

Answer 42

Teaching a pigeon to roll a ball towards small pins (as in tenpin bowling) can be achieved by shaping. At first the pigeon is rewarded for pecking near to the ground the reinforcement is then withheld until the pecking is near the ball. Subsequently, the reward (food) is not given until the ball is hit, then the ball has to be in the right direction before food is given, and so on, until the ball hits the pins. This process of gradual rewarding is referred to as successive approximations. This is when the behaviour is rewarded for acting in a way that gets closer and closer to the desired behaviour.

Question 43

How does operant conditioning explain the acquisition and maintenance of phobias?

Answer 43

Operant conditioning explains behavior through reinforcement of rewards and punishments. it is possible for some individuals to have acquired a phobia through a pattern of rewards and/or punishments. >Positive reinforcement : If a fear of something is rewarded by getting attention for it, then the response is likely to occur again. > Negative reinforcement may also be a consequence of the fear which means avoiding something that causes pain or fear. These consequences (rewards) could be how the fear becomes a phobia.

Question 44

Operant conditioning has been linked to acquiring phobias such as social phobias, social anxiety!disorder. Social phobia is a disorder which is a marked fear of social situations, such as parties, college, shopping centres, cinemas, and the theatre. APPLY your knowledge of operant conditioning to explain how a 15-year-old student might!develop a phobia of going to school? 3 marks

Answer 44

 A positive reinforcement is when something good is given in response to the behaviour. The 15-year-old would receive attention such as being listened to. This positive reinforcement of attention would make it more likely for the student to reinforce the social phobia of school as positive reinforces encourage behaviour to be repeated.

Question 45

Explain how operant conditioning can be linked explaining the maintenance of a social phobia

Answer 45

A social phobia is a marked fear of social situations, such as parties, college, shopping centres, cinemas, the theatre, one way of dealing with such a phobia would be to avoid or escape these situations to reduce the levels of anxiety. By avoiding these situations, it would lessen the symptoms and therefore enable the sufferer to feel les anxious (rewarded: negative reinforcement). Therefore, these avoidance behaviours become rewarding and in line with operant conditioning reinforces the avoidance behaviour and makes it more likely to occur in the future. Overtime the continued avoidance continues to develop as a reward and also becomes negative reinforcement. This explains how a phobia can be maintained through operant conditioning.

Question 46

Evaluate Skinner's theory of Operant Conditioning [8 marks]

Answer 46

Skinner's theory suggests that behaviour is shaped by its consequences. He proposed that there are two main types of consequence: Reinforcers (consequences) from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated, and punishers (consequences) from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Skinner used the Skinner Box in his experiments with pigeons and rats to investigate the effect of consequences (rewards and punishments) on learning. For example, pigeons were rewarded with pellets of food when they pecked at a lever. One strength of Skinner's theory is that it is backed up by scientific evidence. This research is empirical, meaning only directly observable behavior was measured, providing quantitative, objective data to provide statistical evidence for the theory of operant conditioning. For example, the measuring of pecking behaviour by the pigeons established the response rate of learning brought about through the consequences of ether food (reward) or electric shock (punishment). Furthermore, the Skinner Box environment provided high level of control in the laboratory setting. The rewards and punishments given to the animals could be manipulated to establish cause and effect links. This enabled the internal validity of Skinner's research to be considered high, supporting psychology as a science. A weakness of Skinner's operant conditioning theory is that the methodology used affects the generalisability of the research. As Skinner use rats and pigeons, the conclusions relating to learning a behaviour through consequences might not relate to human learning. Humans have more motivation and think about their behaviour; it is assumed pigeons and rats do not think in the same way. Furthermore, ecological validity of the research can be argued to be low because most organisms learn in far more complex environments than a Skinner Box. This limits the credibility of operant conditioning as an accurate explanation of human behaviour. Overall, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning has many applications in society. The theory canNbe useful in promoting desired behaviour and learning strategies in the classroom, as well as the criminal justice systems. Treatments for dysfunctional behaviours can be developed using operant conditioning principles, for example, token economies are used to help treat patients with schizophrenia. Therefore, operant conditioning theory considers individual differences as it provides an explanation for how a range of behaviours are learnt, for example the acquisition of phobias through positive and negative reinforcements. Despite the ethical issues related to harming animals by punishing them through administering electric shocks, these costs are outweighed by the many applications to society.