Cream Pack 2 Flashcards
What is correlational research?
Correlational research collects data to investigate the extent to which two variables are associated.
Define the term Co-variables:
Co-variables are the two variables in a correlational study which have been measured.
What is correlational analysis?
Correlational analysis is a data analysis technique that simply describes the relationship between two covariables in statistical terms. There are two main types of correlation relationship- positive and negative correlations.
What is a positive correlation?
A positive correlation is one where higher values on one variable are associated with higher values on another variable OR Low values of one variable are associated with low values on the other variable.
What is a negative correlation?
A negative correlation is one where high values on one variable associated with low values on the other variable.
What is a scatter diagram?
A scatter diagram is a visual representation of (a graph of) a correlation relationship.
When each point is plotted it provides a visual description of the relationship between the two variables.
What does the correlation coefficient tell us about the data?
This number tells us the strength of the correlation and the direction (whether it is positive or negative)
What are the number ranges of correlation coefficients?
A correlation coefficient can be any number between -1 and +1.
Correlations can be expressed in a numerical way using statistical tests to analyse data.
The results of these calculations as a number called….
A Correlation coefficient
How would you describe a correlation coefficient between 0.0 to 0.3?
Weak
How would you describe a correlation coefficient between 0.3 to 0.7?
Moderate
How would you describe a correlation coefficient above 0.7?
Strong
How would you describe a correlation coefficient of 0.0?
No correlation
Give three strengths of correlational studies
- correlational studies allows the identification of relationships between variables when it’s difficult for practical reasons or unethical to manipulate the variables.
- if there is a relationship between two variables it can be a starting point for stimulating future research.
- correlational studies is scientific in that it tends to be objective and easily replicable using quantitive data collection methods also making it more reliable. A correlation coefficient is an objective way to describe the strength of a relationship between two variables.
Give three weaknesses of correlational studies
• In correlational studies there is little control over the variables so cause-and-effect links cannot be established. This limits how scientific correlational studies can be as establishing cause-and-effect is an important standard of science.
• The two co-variables may not be measured in a valid manner. (One variable eg.
depression may be hard to quantify)
•Correlations can be misused.
They simply tell us that a relationship exists between two variables and so it is very difficult to make accurate conclusions about the causes. Media and governments can make huge claims from correlational studies when in reality the relationship could mean something completely different.
What is internal validity in correlations?
The extent to which 2 co-variables have actually measured and give a true reflection of the behaviour being researched.
Memory capacity decreases with age.
Is this a positive a negative correlation?
Negative
The more extrovert someone is the more noise they make at parties.
Is this a positive a negative correlation?
Positive
The more anxious someone is the less they eat.
Is this a positive a negative correlation?
Negative
The use of Google to search the web decreases of age.
Is this a positive a negative correlation?
Negative
State a correlation coefficient that would indicate a perfect correlation.
-1.0 or +1.0
What is observational research?
the observation and recording of a person’s freely chosen behaviour.
What are the two ways observational research can be used?
- research methods where there is no hypothesis; instead a research question.
- data collection techniques in experiments
What are the two main types of observational research?
- Naturalistic
* Structured
What are naturalistic observations?
Naturalistic observations are when the behaviour is studied in its natural setting and the environment is left as it normally is without any manipulation by the researcher.
What are structured observations?
Structured observations are when some of the variables including the environment are controlled.
These observations still aim to capture freely chosen behaviour but the situations may be set up or structured in someway.
Name the Features of observational research:
Naturalistic OR Structured
Participant OR Non-Participant
Covert OR Overt
Collecting quantitative data OR Collecting qualitative data
Explain the difference between structured
and naturalistic observations.
In structured observation, the researcher decides on the conditions. They often choose the setting, and may control some of the variables. Where as in naturalistic observations, spontaneously occurring behaviour that takes place in its normal setting is observed, and no variables are controlled.
Define Reliability
When research is replicated and findings are produced consistently over a number of investigations.
Define ecological validity
The extent to which a research finding obtained in one environment can be generalised to a different environment
Define validity
The accuracy of the measurement or operationalisation of the variables and refers to the extent to which a study has measured what it claims to measure.
What are the advantages of structured observation?
•More control over environment which leads to more
accurate observations - due to standardised
procedures
• This also means easier to replicate =higher reliability
• Can control some confounding variables
What are the disadvantages of structured observation?
- Controlled setting and procedures means Lower ecological validity
- If setting unfamiliar - may affect behaviour
- Cause and effect cannot be established
What are the advantages of naturalistic observation?
- Setting is natural so High ecological validity as the results are more generalisable to real life.
- Useful if ethical considerations prevent the manipulation of variables
- Can potentially gather rich and meaningful data =valid
- Used to generate ideas for experimental studies
What are the disadvantages of naturalistic observation?
• Participant awareness is a extraneous variable that is difficult to control therefore a threat to
validity.
- Difficult to control confounding variables= Difficult to replicate = reliability lowered.
- Cause and effect cannot be established
- Subjectivity of observer
- Ethical problems of consent, invasion of privacy, right to withdraw and deception if hidden
What are participant observations?
Participant observations involve the observer becoming part of the group being observed either covert or overt.
What are non-participant observations?
The observer are not part of what is being observed and can even be hidden watching through a one way mirror or video.
What are the advantages of participant observation?
•first- hand accounts/data - more insight and understanding of what is happening leading to higher validity
•High ecological validity if people are just going
about their business as normal.
What are the disadvantages of participant observation?
•Difficult to record data as behaviour happens = lowers accuracy / validity
• Observer gets too involved = More likely to be
subjective
- Observer may alter behaviour of group - lowers validity
- Ethical issues - e.g., when covert deception/ invasion of privacy
What are the disadvantages of non-participant observation?
•Observer may not understand what is happening = Less
detailed insight = lower validity
• Ethical issues are raised = invasion of privacy; consent; right to withdraw
What are the advantages of non-participant observation?
- Accuracy of observations is higher as observers can focus on data collection increasing validity.
- Observer has no role in it so more likely to be objective.
What is a covert observation?
Participants don’t know they
are being observed
What is a overt observation?
Where the participants are aware they are being observed.
What are the advantages of a covert observation?
•Unaware they are being studied so behaviour is more natural - higher validity
•The observer can record data without
being concerned about the effect this will
have on participants : demand
characteristics lower
What are the disadvantages of a covert observation?
•Ethical issues raised due to difficulties in gaining consent;
debriefing; deception; no right to withdraw; Invasion of
privacy- participants may be distressed if they learn they have been
secretly observed ( but this is allowed if in public place )
•Practical problems : not easy to observe behaviour secretly as it difficult to find a suitable position where notes can be
made
What are the disadvantages of a overt observation?
- behaviour may change - e.g. increased effects of demand characteristics; social desirability
- Overt observer may be distracted by participants and so data recorded may be lose some accuracy
What are the issues in Observational Research?
- Reliability: Researcher effects in the way the observed behaviour is interpreted can lead to low inter-observer reliability.
- Validity: if behaviour checklists are flawed or vague leading to behaviour belonging to more than one category or observer bias leading to subjective interpretations can both reduce validity of the observation.
How can we deal with threats to reliability?
Pilot studies can used to train observers in the use of the recording systems. After practice their observations should show a high inter-observer reliability.
What is inter-observer reliability?
The extent to which the recorded observations of two observers are consistent.
How can we deal with threats to validity?
- Behaviour observed must be very clearly operationalised.
- Behaviour checklist must be carefully planned and piloted to ensure they measure what was originally intended.
- Using more than one observer and conducting observations in varied settings will reduce observer bias.
How can we overcome the ethical issue informed consent?
1) Ask for consent lol.
- debrief participants afterwards explaining the study and asking permission to use the data.
- BPS ethical guidelines says it is only acceptable to observe others without their consent in situations where participants would expect to be observed by strangers.
What are the three main techniques for sampling the behaviour of interest in observational research?
- Continuous observation
- Time sampling
- Event sampling
What is continuous observation?
When the observer records every instance of behaviour. Resulting in qualitative data.
What is time sampling?
Recording target behaviours for set lengths of time at set intervals.
Resulting in quantitative data collection.
What is a advantage and disadvantage of time sampling?
Time sampling may reduce fatigue and boredom also giving the observer a gap to write any additional notes.
However certain important instances of the target behaviour may be missed.
What is event sampling?
Event sampling is recording certain behaviour or (a specific event) every time it occurs in a target population throughout the observed period.
Give a advantage and disadvantage of event sampling
One advantage is that it limits behaviour needed to be observed thus reducing the chance that the behaviour of interest will be missed.
However one disadvantage is that it may be difficult to observe all the events if there is a large number of people to observe and if they are spread over a large area.
What are the disadvantages of using behaviour categories for quantitative data?
- Gives a very restricted, quantitative view of what is actually happening. (reductionist).
- behaviour may occur that doesn’t fit into the categories and is then not recorded.
Both of these problems may
reduce validity
What are the advantages of using behaviour categories?
•Objective, clearly defined categories should reduce observer bias.
•Provides quantitative data which can be
analysed statistically -Allows us to make
numerical comparisons between groups &
behaviours.
Both of these qualities can lead to higher
reliability.
What are the advantages of using note taking and observations?
•Rich detailed data - providing
complex information on complex
behaviour. Increasing validity.
•Allows you to note any behaviours
that aren’t covered by a checklist
What are the disadvantages of using note taking and observations?
•Open to subjective interpretation so validity lowered.
• Difficult to replicate such methods as no info on exactly why certain things were recorded = lowers reliability
• Observer may miss things while
writing notes.
Why might researchers use a
pilot study?
•To train observers in the use of recording systems.
•To identify errors.
This will increase the reliability of the
study.
Why must list categories be mutually exclusive?
Mutually exclusive: each behaviour should be classified in only one category.
If they are not mutually exclusive, then different observers may record the same data in different categories.
What is content analysis
Content analysis is a research technique for the systematic quantitative description of the content in written, spoken or visual human communication.
Give the two main sources of qualitative data that could be used in a content analysis.
- The Media (any medium that can be recorded and reviewed is appropriate)
- Primary Research Data
Why is content analysis useful?
Content analysis can help us to understand the messages in complex human communication and how they might be related to human behaviour.
Briefly outline the 5 main steps in content analysis
- Research question and hypothesis
- Sampling
- Coding units- creating categories
- Pilot Studies
- Collecting the data
Describe the 1st step on content analysis: Research question & hypothesis
The research of starts with a research question and hypothesis which shapes the way to research is done and helps in choosing appropriate materials and coding units.
Describe the 2nd step on content analysis: Sampling
- The nature of interest is first defined.
- Then the researchers must decide how much of the available information will be analysed (if they decide to analyse all available information or select a sample from it)
Describe the 3rd step on content analysis: Coding units- creating categories
The researchers must decide how to categorise the material to
be analysed to best answer their research question. These are
known as coding units (or categories) and can be at many different levels.
What are the different ‘levels’ of coding units?
Word
Theme
Item
Time & Space
Explain how we carry out coding units?
- skim the material and make a list of possibilities.
- The categories should have operational definitions stating exactly what will be counted in each category and should be mutually exclusive.
- Non-instances sometimes need to be included. (Absence or non-occurrence)
Describe the 4th step on content analysis: Pilot Studies
Researchers can be trained using pilot studies to become familiar with the types of material likely to be encountered and categories can become more fully defined and understood.
Describe the 5th step on content analysis: Collecting the data
There is two main ways to collect data:
A) Record the frequency counts in a particular coding category. A easy to use checklist or tally chart will need to be created producing a frequency table. NOMINAL LEVEL DATA.
B) Coders make rank items (Eg. Scenes in a film may be ranked for the level of violence on a 1-10 scale) ORDINAL LEVEL DATA
What type of reliability is most useful to establish in content analysis?
Inter-observer reliability
Another coder should be able to independently code the material into the same categories.
If not the categories may need more clarification.
What are three advantages of content analysis?
•Content analysis can help draw out the main trends in the messages and how they might be related to human behaviour.
•The external validity of content analysis can often be high because a study like this will usually be
investigating something that is actually seen /read/heard by ordinary people in the real world. This increases the generalisability of the conclusions.
•Replication can be easy as usually the materials and standardised procedures are available for others to use. Reliability tends to be high.
What are three disadvantages of content analysis?
A content analysis cannot show cause and effect. Content analysis describes what trends or patterns are
present in the communications that have been analysed but may not reveal the underlying motives for
the observed patterns. (what’ but not why’).
•Researcher effects and subjectivity can be high as the content to be analysed is chosen by the
researcher and the codes and categories are chosen by the researcher. The qualitative data is then
analysed and interpreted into the categories according to the researcher’s ideas. Validity is lowered
by these problems.
•The analysis may be limited by an unrepresentative sample of available materials. not be an accurate
reflection of reality
What is socially sensitive research?
This term refers to any psychological research that has ethical implications that go beyond the research situation and affect people or groups in the wider society.
What is thematic analysis?
identifying and assessing patterns in
qualitative data allowing conclusions
to be drawn
What are the 6 main phases of thematic analysis?
- Familiarisation with the data:
- Coding:
- Searching for themes:
- Reviewing themes:
- Defining andnaming themes:
- Writing-up:
What are the strengths of thematic analysis?
- data remains rich and qualitative when identifying themes- validity remains high
- more manageable summary allows conclusions to be drawn.
- Researcher had to derive themes from the data rather than their own preconceived themes
What are the weaknesses of thematic analysis?
- Themes can com from the researcher rather than from the data- researcher effects reduce validity
- Reliability is reduced as researchers can look at the same data and identify different themes.
- Time consuming and highly skilled task
What is a case-study?
A case study is an in-depth investigation gathering highly detailed information of a single individual or a small group.
What is a purpose of a case study?
To provide important insight into psychological functions
when compiling a case study a psychologist can now draw on a huge range of possible sources of
information. State 3:
•Interviews with the participant
•School records and reports Medical records
•Diaries, letters or other biographical
information
What are the strengths of a case study?
- Allow researchers to collect rich and detailed data
- Because they deal with unusual cases data can often trigger further research and sometimes be used to challenged established theories
What are the weaknesses of a case study?
•researcher may spend a great deal of time interviewing and building up a relationship with the participant this can lead to the researcher interpreting data in a subjective manner. This reduces the validity of the findings.
•Validity is also reduced if the participants are being asked to remember information from the past,
which they may not recall correctly.
•studies are unique and it is often doubtful whether the results gained can be generalised beyond the one particular participant that was studied.
•difficult to replicate due to their nature and so their reliability tends to be low.
•Case studies cannot be used to establish cause-and-effect links between variables because of the lack
† control over variables that have influenced the behaviour being studied.
•many ethical issues are raised. They often involve delving into the
personal lives of the people being studied. Participants should be assured of confidentiality;
Do case studies tend to be reliable?
No
Do case studies tend to be subjective?
Yes
Do case studies tend to be objective?
No
Do case studies tend to have generalisability?
No
Identify one threat to reliability of case studies
Due to their nature they are difficult to replicate reducing reliability
Identify one threat to validity of case studies
If participants are asked to recall information from the past they could recall incorrectly reducing accuracy
In fMRI scans what happens to the Blood flow of the brain when a specific area is more active?
The area of the brain that is active consumes more oxygen so blood flow increases to the active area to meet this demand.
In fMRI scans what is meant by BLOD contrast imaging?
(Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent contrast imaging)
When oxyhemoglobin becomes deoxyhemoglobin.
How does fMRI detect BOLD contrast?
A magnetic field is produced which causes molecules within the body to move in a slightly different way and release radio waves which the scanner can detect.
How is fMRI scanning used to investigate human behaviour?
They can be used to produce activation maps showing precisely which part of the brain is involved in a particular mental process.
How do CAT scans work and what kind of image do they produce?
In CT scanners there is one X-ray source with a large number of detectors.
Each detector measures the amount of radiation being absorbed throughout the brain the detectors are then rotated around the patient to give a large number of images which are then combined to give a 3-D STRUCTURAL IMAGE of the brain.
How can CAT scans be used to investigate human behaviour?
CAT scans are useful as they can detect: bleeding, brain injuries, brain tumours, enlarged brain cavities or any other cognitive deficit to help see if there is a link to human behaviour
Describe how PET scans work:
- A small amount of radioactive
matireal is injected into the participant. - This radioactive matireal bonds to glucose molecules in the body forming a tracer.
- As the brain uses glucose for energy, the areas of the brain which are most active absorb the tracer.
- The radioactive material emits
positively charged particles called positrons which are picked up by the scanner. - This information allows a computer to produce coloured images of the level of activity occurring throughout
the brain.
How can PET scans be used to investigate human behaviour?
Participants can be scanned whilst completing cognitive tasks. We can find out which areas of the brain are active during certain tasks.
What do fMRI scans look at?
fMRI scans look at the function and activity of the brain
What do CAT scans look at?
CAT scans look at the structure of the brain
What do PET scans look at?
PET scans look at the activity of the brain
In PET scans what are “hotspots”
Hotspots are yellow/red areas of greater intensity, indicating Where large amounts of the radiotracer have accumulated
In PET scans what are “cold spots”
Cold spots show up in green and blue and indicate a smaller concentration of radiotracer and less chemical activity.
Give two advantages of fMRI scans
- fMRI is a non-invasive technique that does not involve exposure to radiation therefore if safe for participants making it ethically sound.
- Sensitivity to blood flow changes is very precise making fMRI a valid way of studying normal brain functions for psychologists.
What disadvantages of fMRI scans?
- Images need to be skilfully analysed and interpreted, Misinterpretation is possible and so validity is lowered bc of this.
- fMRI scans cannot look at the activity of the individual neurones.
- High- quality images are assured only if participants are able to remain perfectly still. (head braces can help with this)
What are three advantages of CAT scans?
- Provides very detailed images of the physical structures of the brain including different different types of tissue, bones and blood vessels making for highly valid data.
- Not as harmful as PET scans- are non-invasive and not painful.
- Less sensitive to patient movement than fMRI
Give one disadvantages of CAT scans?
•Small amount of radiation exposure gives the slight chance of cancer but technique is only used once so the risk of small.
Give the advantages of PET scans
- Found to be reliable in that they can be replicated exactly and the same results found
- Usually painless (apart from the initial injection)
- Gives valid measures of important functions in the brain such as blood flow, oxygen use and glucose metabolism- providing unique data to psychologists.
What are the disadvantages of PET scans?
- Resolution of the images is lower so it does not tell us exactly which parts of the brain are involved, reducing validity of conclusions that may be drawn from them.
- Produce complex images that may be open to bias or interpretation, reducing validity.
- Participant is exposed to radiation raising ethical questions.
What are the two main approaches to investigating the relationship between genetics and human behaviour?
- Twin studies
* Adoption studies
What is Nature?
Nature - innate characteristics
determined by genetic and
physiological factors
What is Nurture?
Nurture - the influence of the
environment and learning
experiences
What is the Nature & Nurture debate?
the extent to which behaviour is determined by inherited genetic factors (nature) OR whether behaviour is determined by our interactions with the environment and experiences and influences after conception (nurture).
What is monozygotic?
Twins that are 100% genetically identical
What is dizygotic?
Non-identical twins with only 50% of the DNA in common
What is the traditional way of expressing the degree of similarity between twin pairs?
Using Concordance Rates:
The degree to which member of a twin pair display the same characteristics expressed as a %
What is a twin study?
The comparison of the concordance rate of monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs.
What are the advantages of twin studies?
- Only ethical way of studying genetic inheritance
* Can show the role of genes in determining behaviour using participants that share 100% of their genes.
What are the disadvantages of twin studies?
- MZ twins may be treated more alike with greater similarities in their upbringings than DZ twins which could be a co-founding variable reducing validity.
- No twin study has ever found 100% concordance rate on any characteristic or behaviour in MZ twins. Therefore we must take into account the effect of the environment on behaviour.
What is an adoption study?
The comparison of concordance rate of a particular behavioural trait by seeing how similar the adoptee is to adoptive parents versus biological parents.
What is the advantage of adoption studies?
The only ethical way of looking at
the similarities of behavioural traits
between biological parents and their children that they did not raise.
What are two disadvantages of adoption studies?
- Only certain types of family might be accepted to adopt children with certain qualities and abilities making results less generalisable to the population.
- Children are placed in adoptive families often because there are similarities with the biological family so the researcher cannot assume the two environment are very different.
