Aggression: Bio 3

Question 1

Where are the Hypothalamus and Amygdala found in the brain?

Answer 1

The limbic system

Question 2

Describe the role of the hypothalamus in aggression

Answer 2

The Hypothalamus regulates our behavioral responses to things like pain, threats and sexual satisfaction by controlling hormone levels in the body.
This includes testosterone, which has been linked to aggressive behaviour.

Question 3

Define the term homeostasis

Answer 3

The process that maintains the stability of the human body in response to changes in external conditions eg. Temperature

Question 4

Describe the role of the amygdala in aggression

Answer 4

• *When we are exposed to threatening stimuli,** our amygdala is activated and results in increased emotional arousal. As a result we either take flight or fight and become aggressive.
• *The amygdala itself doesn’t actually produce aggression**; it is connected to other parts of the brain that produce aggression. BUT, it is necessary to initiate the aggression. Without it, we wouldn’t experience the immediate emotional reaction associated with aggression.

Question 5

What is meant by the term ‘reactive aggression’

Answer 5

• *Aggression in direct response to a**
• *provocative stimulus with little planning** is referred to as impulsive or reactive aggression.

Question 6

What evidence is the to show the role of the limbic system in aggression?

Answer 6

• Case Studies of Brain Damaged Patients
• fMRI scanning

Question 7

Provide evidence of a case study that shows evidence for the role of the Limbic System in aggression

Answer 7

Charles Whilman was a student at the University of Texas and an ex-Marine. He first killed his wife and mother and then went on a shooting rampage on and around the university’s campus in 1966. After his death he was found to have a cancerous tumour in the hypothalamus & near the amygdala.

Question 8

Provide evidence of brain scanning using fMRI that shows evidence for the role of the Limbic System in aggression

Answer 8

Coccaro et al. (2006) showed patients with Intermittent Explosive Disorder (IED) a threatening stimuli (e.g. an angry face) and measured brain activity using fMRI scans.
Compared to a control group the patients with IED had a greater amount of activity in their amygdala and less activity in a region in their prefrontal cortex - which may have meant it was less able to inhibit the amygdala.
It is not clear from this research why the lED patients had increased activity in the amygdala and decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex as fMRI scanners do not tell us this.

Question 9

How does the fMRI detect BOLD contrast?

Answer 9

A magnetic field causes molecules within the body to move in a slightly different way and release radio waves which the scanner can then detect.
The fMRI scanner can detect the difference between radio waves
emitted from oxyhemoglobin and from deoxyhaemoglobin, thus enabling the BOLD contrast to be detected.

Question 10

Give two advantages of fMRI scans

Answer 10

•Provides exact locations of increased
neural activity during tasks as sensitivity to blood flow changes is very precise, therefore increasing validity and reliability.
•Non-invasive as it does not involve
exposure to radiation like PET and CAT scans, so therefore more ethical

Question 11

Give two disadvantages of fMRI scans

Answer 11

•Unable to detect activity of individual
neurones so gives limited information on functioning.
•Scanning participants that have metal implants can be troublesome due to the strong magnetic fields. And participants need to remain extremely still during the scan.

Question 12

Describe the role of the prefrontal
cortex in aggressive behaviour

Answer 12

The prefrontal cortex regulates aggressive behaviour. It allows us to control reactive aggressive impulses that stem from the amygdala.
This mechanism inhibits us from automatically reacting to threats and allows us to think about an appropriate course of action.

Question 13

What is pro-active aggression?

Answer 13

Aggression that has a great amount of control

Question 14

Explain how the case of Phineas Gage supports the role of the pre-frontal cortex in aggressive behaviour.

Answer 14

Phineas Gage suffered accidental damage to his pre-frontal lobe and
following this injury, he went from being a sober, quiet person to an aggressive, irritable drunk.
This suggests that the pre-frontal cortex is involved in the moderation of our aggressive behaviour.

Question 15

Describe one piece of evidence
that supports the role of the pre-frontal cortex in aggression using brain scanning

Answer 15

Grafman et al. (1996) showed using CAT scans that veterans from the Vietnam War with structural damage to their Prefrontal Cortex were more aggressive than veterans with structural damage to other areas of their brain.

Question 16

Give two advantages of CAT scans

Answer 16

•Provides detailed structural images of the brain which is useful for detecting structural abnormalities.
•Less sensitive to movement of the
participant compared to fMRI.

Question 17

Give two disadvantages of CAT scans

Answer 17

•Not sensitive enough to detect precise details of soft tissue in the brain.
•Participants are exposed to radiation
(although only a small amount)

Question 18

Give three disadvantages of PET scans

Answer 18

•The resolution of the image is lower
compared to fMRI, therefore it is less
precise and valid
•Interpretations of the images could be
biased.
•Participants are exposed to radiation

Question 19

Give one advantage of PET Scans

Answer 19

Shown to be a reliable and valid technique for measuring the activity of the brain as it detects blood flow, oxygen use and metabolism in the brain.

Question 20

Describe the link between serotonin and aggression.

Answer 20

Low levels of the neurotransmitter
serotonin are associated with an
increased tendency towards impulsive and reactive aggressive behaviour.
Low levels of serotonin in the prefrontal cortex means it no longer inhibits the fight/flight response of the amygdala increasing the likelihood of
reactive, impulsive aggression.

Question 21

Describe evidence from clinics drug studies that support the role of serotonin in aggression

Answer 21

In clinical studies, antidepressant drugs which increase serotonin levels also tend to reduce irritability and impulsive aggression.
This suggests that increased serotonin levels do lead to reduced aggression.

Question 22

Describe evidence from lab experiments with animals that support the role of serotonin in aggression

Answer 22

Ferrari et al. (2003) studied the link between neurotransmitters and aggression in rats.
By introduced an “intruder rat” allowing the rats to fight every day for 10 days at the same time, on the 11th day, no intruder rat was introduced.
The conclusion was that serotonin levels in the rats decreased, because they were anticipating a fight.
This study also illustrates brain plasticity, since the rats brain chemistry appeared to change to adapt to what it experienced.

Question 23

What is your Classic study for biological psychology?

Answer 23

Raine et al. (1997)
Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography.

Question 24

Give a brief background to the classic study

Answer 24

At the time of Raine et al’s study it was thought that such individuals had brain impairments, but there had been little brain imaging research on this important population to support or refute this notion.

Question 25

What was the aim of Raine et al study?

Answer 25

To discover using PET scans whether there are brain abnormalities in murders who pleaded not guilt by reason of insanity.

Question 26

Describe the sample and participants in Raine’s study

Answer 26

• Two groups each with 41 people (39 Ms and 2 Fs)
• The experimental group were 41 criminal with convictions for murder, being tested to support a claim of NGRI
• The control group was matched to the experimental group on variables such as: age, gender and psychiatric illnesses. (Matched pairs)

Question 27

The main purpose of using a matched pairs design in psychology experiments is to control for participant variables.
Explain how this is a benefit of the matched pairs design used in Raine’s study

Answer 27

P: A benefit of controlling for participant variables in Raine’s study is that this allows for any confounding variables which may have influenced
violent behaviour to be eliminated.
E: For example, those murderers who had a psychiatric illness such as
schizophrenia were matched with a person who also had a psychiatric
disorder.

Question 28

What was the research method in Raine’s study? Are there any reasons against it being this research method?

Answer 28

The method is a laboratory experiment using matched pairs design.
The main IV is whether the participant had committed murder/ manslaughter or not. The DVs were the results of the PET scans.
This design is sometimes referred to as a quasi or natural experiment because the researchers do not have total control over the IV.

Question 29

Describe the procedure of Raine’s study

Answer 29

Participants performed a Continuous Performance Task (CPT) involving the participant staring at a screen while various blurred symbols appear. The participant had to press a button when a particular symbol appeared, thus requiring constant attention to the screen.
They did this task for 10 minutes as a practice trial.
A radioactive glucose tracer was then injected into the participant.
After a further 32 minutes of the task, the subject’s brains were PET scanned in order to determine the glucose metabolic rate throughout the brain to determine the level of activity in various regions of the brain.

Question 30

What were the Results from Raine’s study?

Answer 30

Cortical areas of the brain
•The NGRIs had Lower levels of brain activity in both hemispheres compared to the control group in the prefrontal cortex
Subcortical areas of the brain
•The NGRI group also showed there were abnormal asymmetrical levels of limbic system activity in the amygdala compared to the controls (right hem higher left hem lower)

Question 31

What are the conclusions from Raine et al’s classic study?

Answer 31

Reduced activity in certain areas of the brain such as the prefrontal cortex, together with abnormal asymmetries of activity in structures of the limbic system such as the amygdala and hippocampus could predispose a person towards violent behaviour.
Raine et al. suggest that:
1. The lack of functioning in the prefrontal cortex results in the reduced ability to regulate the activity of the limbic system and thus it is less able to control impulsiveness and aggressive
responses to threatening stimuli.
2. The abnormal functioning of the amygdala, which is responsible for emotional processing, results in the murderers being fearless. This fearlessness could result in the increase chance of acting violently.

Question 32

What does Raine warn about the conclusion for his study?

Answer 32

Raine says that these conclusions cannot be used in isolation and is cautious of the implications of his findings. The findings cannot be taken as evidence that violence is determined by biology alone. Or that PET scans can be used to identify potential murderers.

Question 33

Give one strength of reliability when evaluating Raine et al’s study (PEEC)

Answer 33

• P= Reliability of the study is high on the whole
• E= This is because standardised procedures and equipment were used on every participant therefore increasing replicability.
• E= For example, All participants were given the same continuous performance task to complete for 32 minutes and were then PET scanned with the same scanner to measure their brain activity.
• C= Furthermore, PET scans produce quantitative data which increases replicability

Question 34

Give one strength of validity when evaluating Raine et al’s study (PEEC)

Answer 34

•P= Some variables in this study were well controlled.
•E= This is a strength because it increases the validity (accuracy) by reducing the confounding variables that could effect the outcome i.e. differences in brain activity
•E= For example: Participants did not take any medication for two weeks leading up to the scan. This was done to be sure that medication had not influenced brain activity.
AND/OR
The control group was matched to the experimental group on several factors such as age, gender and psychiatric illnesses.
This was needed to control the effect of participant variables. It increases validity because we can be fairly sure that any differences in brain activity between the 41 murderers and the control group was probably not due to individual differences
C= However, Raine et al did not have control of all the confounding variables as he had no control over the upbringing of his sample or the situation in which the murder occurred. Therefore, any finding that shows differences in brain activity between the two groups does not mean that brain dysfunction caused the murders.

Question 35

Give one weakness of ethics in Raine et al’s study (PEEC)

Answer 35

• P= The participants were not always protected fully from harm
• E= this means that although ethical guidelines were followed there were still costs for the participants
• E= For example All participants were taken off their medication for 2 weeks. And they were all subject to the invasive procedure of the injection of a radioactive tracer.
• However, these problems might be outweighed for the participants because of their hope to have a plea of NGRI accepted (meaning, for some of them, escaping the death penalty!)

Question 36

Give one weakness of generalisability in Raine et al’s study

Answer 36

• P=One weakness of this study is the sample consisted of mainly men
• E= therefore it is less likely to be representative of female violent offenders
• E= For example, this can be seen in the sample of the study which consisted of 41 violent murders only two of whom were women
• C= However, most extremely violent offender are male so the results may give us some valid information on brain dysfunction in this relatively small group of people.

Question 37

Give one weakness of validity in Raine et al’s study

Answer 37

P= The study is reductionist and this means that its validity is reduced.
E= This is because it is limited in its explanation of the causes of violent aggression.
E= For example Reductionism can be seen in this research because it focused on dysfunction in brain
activity in certain structures of the brain like the PFC and the amygdala to explain the violent behaviour of the sample. This does not take into account the factors such as the upbringing of the participants or the situation at the time of the murder so does not give a completely accurate account of their behaviour.
C= However, reductionism is a valuable characteristic in science and in this research it allows Raine
et al to focus on the biological variable of greatest importance in these 41 murderers.

Question 38

What are the applications for Raine et al’s study?

Answer 38

• P= The study is useful for society as it suggests that pre-dispositions for
committing violent criminal acts could be identified using PET scans.
• E= This would be useful as violent offending could be predicted and early
interventions could be used to prevent violent criminal offences
• E= For example, . E.G. The PET scans showed that the murderers had abnormal brain activity in structures like the PFC and the amygdala compared to the controls. This could show who may become violent offenders.
• C= However, Raine himself suggests that caution is needed. He emphasises that having certain kinds of brain activity does not mean that somebodv will be a violent offender. i.e. PET scans cannot and should not be used as a diagnostic tool to predict violent offending

Question 39

Give 2 strengths for using brain structure and function as an explanation for aggression

Answer 39

•Scientific credibility is high:
Theories on the link between brain structure and dysfunction are falsifiable (testable): Brian scanning techniques such as PET scans, fMRIs and CAT scans now allow researchers to directly observe the structure and functioning of the brain allowing anomalies to be detected and
measured in an objective manner.
For example: Grafman et al. (1996) studied veterans of the Vietnam war. Using CAT scans, the researchers showed that veterans with structural damage to their PFC were more aggressive than veterans with structural damage to other areas of their brain.

•Supporting evidence is extensive and wide-ranging: Many different research methods have been used including very well controlled lab based experiments with animals. Furthermore, research tends to be easily replicable and similar results have been recorded repeatedly. This gives high reliability to the findings of these studies.
For example; the use of animals in lab based experiments on aggression allows both individual differences and situational variables to be under the strict control of the researchers to a level that would not be possible with humans due to ethical constrains
Furthermore, animals make excellent participants as demand characteristics are not an issue!

Question 40

Explain the weakness of determinism when using brain structure and function as an explanation for aggression

Answer 40

•Determinism: Could suggest those with smaller amygdala and lower activity in the PFC are destined to be aggressive and they have not free will as to how they behave. This could provide excuses for some people to engage in violence and limit their willingness to engage in treatments such as anger management programs as they might believe them to be futile in the face of biological factors.

Question 41

Describe the link between testosterone and aggression

Answer 41

High levels of testosterone are linked to high levels of aggressive behaviour. Testosterone may influence serotonin levels in areas of the brain that are involved in aggressive reactions, such as the amygdala and the pre-frontal cortex.

Question 42

Describe the research evidence showing gender difference in aggression

Answer 42

Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) after undertaking dozens of laboratory experiments and field studies amongst different social classes in various cultures, concluded that boys are consistently more aggressive than girs. It is also the case that men are far more frequently charged with violent
offences than women, whereas women are usually charged with offences against property.

Question 43

How does testosterone explain findings that males are more aggressive than females on average.

Answer 43

Males produce more testosterone than females (although female ovaries do produce testosterone) and boys have more exposure to testosterone both in the womb and post-natally.
The male sex hormone testosterone is thought to increase levels of aggression from young
adulthood onwards - there is a great deal of inter-male fighting in the teenage years - but testosterone levels drop off in older men.

Question 44

What are the key issues of gender when using testosterone to explain gender differences in aggression.

Answer 44

Males do have more testosterone than females and do commit more violent
crimes but three things must be taken into consideration.
1.Aggression is a complex behaviour and is not just seen in violence - social aggression such as spiteful comments and ignoring people to cause psychological pain can also be seen as aggression
2. All males are not violent and women are capable of violence
3. Reductionism is a problem here as testosterone is not the only biological variable at play in aggressive behaviour

Question 45

Describe a piece of correlational research that shows a link between testosterone and aggression

Answer 45

Dabbs et al (1987) measured testosterone levels in the saliva of 89 male prisoners.
They found that the more Violent prisoners tended to have higher levels of testosterone whereas the non- violent prisoners tended to have lower levels of testosterone.
In addition, those with high levels of testosterone were rated by their peers as ‘tough’

Question 46

Describe a piece of research using animals that shows a link between testosterone and aggression

Answer 46

Wagner et al. (1979) noticed that after castration aggression levels in male mice dropped. When the castrated mice are injected with testosterone (150 micrograms per day) their aggression levels gradually rose back to pre-castration levels. This clearly suggests that testosterone is a cause of aggression in mice.

Question 47

What other behaviours (other than physical violence) are linked with testosterone?

Answer 47

•increases competitiveness and motivation to ‘win”
•enhances the ‘thrill’ experienced in risk taking
•aids male bonding, providing a motivation to protect their own group and attack other groups
All of these behaviours can be linked to aggression but it is not clear whether testosterone increases aggression which results in these behaviours of whether the aggression is triggered by them.

Question 48

Describe the link between cortisol and aggression

Answer 48

low cortisol levels appear to be linked to increased aggression. high levels of cortisol inhibit the effects of testosterone and so inhibit aggression.

Question 49

Describe one piece of research that shows a link between cortisal and aggression

Answer 49

Barzman et al (2013) found low levels of cortisol in the saliva of 7-9 year old boys were linked to a higher number of aggressive incidents recorded by the
nurses.

Question 50

Give one strength of hormones as explanation for aggression

Answer 50

Research in this field demonstrates many “scientific’ characteristics:
Theories on the link between testosterone and aggression are falsifiable (testable);
Hormones like testosterone travel through the bloodstream and so are directly observable. They are also
measurable in an objective, quantitative way.
For example: Dabbs et al (1987) used saliva swabs to measure testosterone levels in prisoners.
Studies in this field (even correlational ones) make extensive use of reductionist techniques and controls. Individual variables such as the hormone testosterone are isolated and measured with extraneous situational variables under tight control.

Question 51

💔🥲What are the practical applications/ usefulness of using hormones as an explanation for aggression?

Answer 51

Research suggests that individual differences in levels of testosterone may be a useful finding in reducing aggression.
For example: the use of drugs to treat undesirable behaviours such as violent sexual offending. The drug Medroxyprogesterone acetate reduces levels of testosterone and as a result offenders report a reduction in sexual fantasies and sexual impulses. This technique is referred to as chemical castration.

Question 52

Give one weakness of hormones as explanation for aggression

Answer 52

To focus mainly on the role of hormones as an explanation of aggressive behaviour in humans is reductionist and therefore this is a problem because it only provides a
partial biological explanation of what causes aggression.
For example: other research shows that neurotransmitters such as serotonin and certain brain
structures such as the PC and the anydgala are also very important in using biology to explain aggressive behaviour.
🙌(this is a 2nd point) Furthermore, to focus only on hormones as an explanation of aggression is to overemphasis the
role of nature and overlook the importance of other factors such as social learning.
For example: Bandura et al (see later notes) carried out many studies that suggest children learn aggression from other watching other people (nurture).

Question 53

According to the theory of natural selection, why have aggressive behaviours evolved in humans? (2)

Answer 53

The theory of natural selection suggests that any behaviour that helps us adapt to the environment means we are more likely to survive.(1)
Aggressive behaviour would have been allowed individuals to defend themselves and protect offspring meaning that this trait would be more likely fo be inherited by offspring.(1)
Therefore, over time, humans have therefore gradually evolved to be aggressive because less aggressive individuals have not survived
to reproduce. (1)

(Only need to know 2 of these points)

Question 54

Give 3 reasons given by Buss et al (1997) for why humans may have evolved to become aggressive.

Answer 54

• Ancient humans used aggression to gain access to the resources, valuable for survival and reproduction, stockpiled by other humans.(1)
• Without aggression enemies would be able to take resources from you; injure or kill you; reduce your status.(1)
• Aggression gives access to valuable members of the other sex. (1)

Question 55

What is the evidence from Barash et al that proves the existence of gender differences in aggressive behaviour?

Answer 55

• professions that involved violence such as soldiers, hunters etc. were overwhelming male.
• modern males are more likely to be both the victims and perpetrators of violent criminal acts than females.

Question 56

What is ‘status competition’?

Answer 56

• Males engaging in aggressive /risk taking behaviours to compete for higher status than other males.
• Because females will be attracted to them. Therefore increasing their chances of successfully reproducing.

Question 57

Wilson and Daly (1985) carried out an
analysis on police homicide records in Detroit during1972.
Give two of their main findings

Answer 57

• Far more homicides were committed by young, unmarried males than any other group.
• Most victims of homicides were also young, unmarried males.

Question 58

Explain how the findings from Wilson and Daly (1985) support the theory that male violence is a behaviour that
has evolved.

Answer 58

• The findings suggest Male violence has, over generations, has been naturally selected as violent men have greater access to the resources that are needed for survival and reproduction ensuring the gene for this behaviour trait is passed on to their offspring. (1)
• For example most perpetrators and victims of the homicides in Detroit in 1972 were young unmarried males suggesting that the violence was competition for status in order to appeal to/acquire the best mates.

Question 59

Explain how the theory of evolution
can explain aggressive behaviour.

Answer 59

POINT: The theory of evolution can explain aggressive behaviour because it suggests that those in the population that had the genes that made aggressive behaviour more likely would have been well adapted to the competitive and dangerous environment of early humans. Aggressive humans would have had a higher chance of survival and reproduction. This is known as survival of the fittest.
JUSTIFY/ EXPLAIN FURTHER: Those that didn’t have the ‘aggression’ genes would be less likely to survive. So by natural selection the gene for aggression would be passed onto the next generation whereas those without this gene would be more likely to die out.
AND /OR JUSTIFY your answer with evidence/examples =
For example, Buss et al (1997) suggest humans that had aggression would be more able to gain the resources of others; defend against attack; fight and inflict costs on competitors for mates and resources.
(4th mark CONCLUSION/COMMENT =
Therefore aggression has evolved as this behaviour ensured that the aggressive individuals survived to pass on the aggression gene to
their offspring.)

Question 60

Give one strength of evolution as and explanation of aggression in PEEC format

Answer 60

P: Scientific credibility of the original theory of evolution is high and supporting evidence is extensive and wide-ranging.
E: It is falsifiable (testable) as it predicts observable physical change will be seen in organisms over time as they adapt to survive and reproduce in their environment. In general, Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural
selection is widely accepted by the scientific community.
For example: Darwin himself provided many scientific observations that
supported his ideas including his famous finches from the Galapagos Islands. He said that the beaks are different because they are perfectly adapted to different food sources on the different islands.
C: However, much of the evidence from fossil records and other scientific study can only support the evolution of PHYSICAL characteristics. It is much harder to find evidence of the evolution of characteristics like aggression.

Question 61

Give one weakness of evolution as and explanation of aggression

Answer 61

P: Evolutionary theory as an explanation of aggression is reductionist in that it argues that the causes of aggressive behaviour can be fully explained by evolutionary pressures that operated hundreds of thousands of years ago.
E: It seems to overlook the role of social and cognitive factors in causing human aggression. For instance, there are some cultures that show a very
high level of aggression and others that show a low level of aggression.
E: This is problem because it lowers the
validity of the theory - since it is not a
complete explanation of the complexities of human aggression it cannot be a fully accurate explanation.
C: Furthermore oversimplifying aggressive behaviour as a result of evolution overemphasises the role of nature overlooking the role of nurture and social learning.

Question 62

What is meant by the term ‘concordance rate’ in twin studies?

Answer 62

A concordance rate in twin studies is the degree to which members of a twin pair display the same characteristics, expressed as a percentage

Question 63

Which behaviour did Gottesman and Shields (1966) investigate using a twin study?

Answer 63

Schizophrenia

Question 64

Name 5 ways that Gottesman and Shields collected information in their study.

Answer 64

• Hospital notes
• Self-report questionnaires
• Self-report interviews
• Personality testing
• Tests to measure disordered thinking

Question 65

What evidence from this study suggests that schizophrenia is linked to genes?

Answer 65

The concordance rate for severe schizophrenia was much higher in monozygotic twins (75%) compared to dizygotic twins (22%)

Question 66

Where did Ludeke et al. get their participanis from?

Answer 66

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared
Apart group

Question 67

Define conservatism

Answer 67

A general preference for the existing order of society and an opposition to efforts to bring about sharp change

Question 68

Define religiousness

Answer 68

Relates to a way of life dedicated to religion and the vows associated within it.

Question 69

What was the aim of Gottesman and Shields (1966) study?

Answer 69

To see whether schizophrenia had a genetic basis. They examined records of patients in a psychiatric hospital over a sixteen year period.

Question 70

What was the procedure of Gottesman and Shields (1966) study?

Answer 70

They identified 57 schizophrenic patients that were one member of a twin. 24 of the twin pairs were monozygotic and 33 were dizygotic.
The researchers then collected data on the participants in a variety of ways (both quantitative and qualitative) including:
- Hospital notes
- Self-report questionnaires
- Personality testing

Question 71

What was the results of Gottesman and Shields (1966) study?

Answer 71

The concordance rate for severe schizophrenia was much higher in monozygotic twins (75%) compared to dizygotic twins (22%)

Question 72

What were the conclusions of Gottesman and Shields (1966) study?

Answer 72

The results suggest that schizophrenia does have a biological basis. However, the concordance rate for monozygotic genes was not 100%. Therefore genes are a risk factor for developing schizophrenia, but environmental triggers may be necessary also.

Question 73

Define probrand in Gottesman and Shields (1966) study

Answer 73

The twin that initially admitted to the hospital and had schizophrenia

Question 74

Decribe one of the categories in Gottesman and Shields (1966) study

Answer 74

Category 4 - proband had schizophrenia, but the co-twin was diagnosed as clinically normal

Question 75

What was the aim of Ludeke et al (2013)’s adoption study?

Answer 75

to determine whether people’s attitudes could be influenced by their
genes. In particular, the researchers were looking at traditionalism by examining these attitudes in MZ and DZ twins that were separated at birth.

Question 76

What was the procedure of Ludeke et al (2013)’s adoption study?

Answer 76

The researchers studied 66 MZ twins and 58 DZ twins that were members of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared
Apart group. (separated at infancy and reunited later in life delete this??) The participants were members of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared
Apart group.
They had filled in various self-report measures to determine their attitudes towards authoritarianism, conservatism, and religiousness.

Question 77

What were the results of Ludeke et al (2013)’s adoption study?

Answer 77

Strong positive correlations were found across all scales in the MZ
twins, while only the conservatism measure scored strongly for DZ twins.

Question 78

What were the conclusions of Ludeke et al (2013)’s adoption study?

Answer 78

This finding suggests that genes do have an influence. on people’s attitudes towards traditionalism.
Further to this, the researchers are confident that this is not due to the twins sharing the same experiences growing up as they grew up in different environment.

Question 79

Evaluate the use of twin studies in explaining human behaviour

Answer 79

✅Twin studies provide psychologists with a unique research design which allows them to study empirically the influence of nature and /or nurture
on human behavior. This is strength because such research has provided a great deal of objective, quantitative data in support for the role of genetics (nature) and/ or the environment (nurture) in certain behaviours. For example: Gottesman and Shield’s (1966) twin study on schizophrenia -
they found that that the concordance rate for severe schizophrenia was much higher in monozygotic twins (75%) compared to dizygotic twins (22%). Showing schizophrenia is in part, but not totally caused by genes as the concordance rate for monozygotic genes was higher than DZ twins but
not 100%. Therefore genes are a risk factor for developing schizophrenia, but environmental triggers may be necessary also.

❌Samples in twin studies are of often
very small and they are also atypical in that most people are not twins. This is a problem because it means the sample is unlikely to represent the wider target population and it is therefore not easy to generalise the results of twin studies to other groups.
For Example: In Gottesman and Shield’s (1966) twin study of schizophrenia they only had 57 twin
pairs. This alongside the fact that most people are not twins means any results they get showing a genetic element of schizophrenia may not be fully generalisable to others.

Question 80

Evaluate the use of adoption studies in explaining human behaviour

Answer 80

✅Scientific credibility is high in adoption studies; They allow for clearer isolation of environmental influences than twin studies. This is particularly true of adoption studies that use MZs
and DZs that have been separated
in infancy and then adopted. This is because if the twin pairs are still similar to one another even though they have not shared environments then researchers can be surer of the validity of results showing that genetics are the main influences at work.
For example: Ludeke et al’s (2013) adoption study of traditionalism used 66 MZ twins and 53 DZ twins that were separated at infancy. The findings allowed them to suggest that genes have an influence on people’s attitudes towards traditionalism. Further to this, the researchers are confident that this is not due to the twins sharing the same experiences growing up as they grew up in different environments.

❌Scientific credibility is lowered by:
Confounding variables: Such studies do not account for the fact that adoptive families are often chosen because of their similarities to the biological family. Furthermore, the child may have spent time with their biological family before adoption. This is a weakness because it means that the
researchers cannot be sure that any results showing genetic influences on behaviour are completely accurate (validity is lowered) because upbringing, even in the earliest days and weeks, may be a confounding variable.

Question 81

What are the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 81

•Our awareness is in layers, so much of
what we think and feel, and most of
what motivates us, is in the
unconscious mind.
•Mental processes drive behaviour
•Freud also emphasises that sex is a
motivating force in human behaviour.
•Things that we find upsetting or
distasteful are repressed and hidden in
our unconscious but may still cause
dysfunctional behaviours.
•Freud viewed the therapist’s task as
helping patients get access to their
unconscious.

Question 82

Define the psychodynamic approach

Answer 82

refers to the psychological forces that underlie human behaviour: feelings, emotions and how they might relate to early experience.

Question 83

Identify and desrcibe the structures of the mind according to Freud

Answer 83

• Conscious: this is the smallest part of the mind, and the only part that you are aware of.
• Preconscious: can retrieve information from the preconscious quite easily- it is equivalent to ordinary memory.
• Unconscious: The person is unaware of intormation stored in the unconscious but it affects their behaviour.

Question 84

Identify the structures of the personality according to Freud

Answer 84

• id
• ego
• superego

Question 85

Describe the id part of personality according to Freud

Answer 85

We are born with a mass of pleasure seeking desires. The id operates on the
pleasure principle and wants immediate gratification.

Question 86

Describe the ego part of personality according to Freud

Answer 86

This operates on the reality principle and controls the desires of the id. It
maintains balance between the id and the superego.

Question 87

Describe the superego part of personality according to Freud

Answer 87

we take on the ethics of other people, including parents. It operates on the morality principle - providing us with a conscience.

Question 88

What are the role of defence mechanisms according to Freud?

Answer 88

Defence mechanisms help the ego keep the id and superego balanced.

Question 89

Identify the diffrent defence mechanisms according for Freud

Answer 89

• displacement
• denial
• repression
• projection
• regression

Question 90

Define the defence mechanism denial according to Freud

Answer 90

completely reject painful thoughts or feelings

Question 91

Define the defence mechanism projection according to Freud

Answer 91

attribute your own unacceptable faults or wishes to someone else

Question 92

Define the defence mechanism repression according to Freud

Answer 92

push information out of consciousness, preventing unacceptable desires or emotions or traumatic memories from becoming conscious; but they are still expressed through dreams or neurotic
behaviours
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Question 93

Define the defence mechanism regression according to Freud

Answer 93

Engage in behaviour characteristic of an earlier stage of development.

Question 94

Define the defence mechanism displacement according to Freud

Answer 94

divert emotions from their original target towards a more acceptable one.

Question 95

Describe the inborn unconscious drive ‘Eros’ according to Freud

Answer 95

“Eros’ motivates us to live, love and create new experiences and ideas. It includes libido which is associated with the sex drive.

Question 96

Describe the inborn destructive drive ‘Thanatos’ according to Freud

Answer 96

It is the destructive drive to return us to an ‘inorganic’ state. (death)

Question 97

Desribe the development of the id and aggressive behaviour freud

Answer 97

The id is the first part of our personality: formed by the two innate
drives (Eros and Thanatos)
• For the first two years of our lives, humans are drive by Eros and Thanatos with no thought to consequences.
• Eros, which is positive and creative, is in direct conflict with “the death drive’, which is self-destructive.
• This tension builds inside us until we can no longer control it, resulting in aggressive behaviour.
• Therefore, aggression is unavoidable since it is innately in us in the form of the death drive.

Question 98

Desribe the development of the ego and aggressive behaviour freud

Answer 98

The ego develops. At around 2 years old. At this stage, some of the norms and rules of our parents and society have been learned. There is a limited understanding that aggressive behaviour is only appropriate some of the time.

Question 99

Desribe the development of the superego and aggressive behaviour freud

Answer 99

At Age 3-6 years
• The Superego develops
• It operates on the morality principle - a sense of right and wrong
•The child also begins to feel pride for acting correctly (the ego-ideal)
•And feels gullty for incorrect behaviour (the conscience)
•At this point apgressive urges from the unconscious ld should be well controlled (assuming the superego has developed properly)

Question 100

Define Catharsis

Answer 100

The process of releasing negative energy from the mind

Question 101

How can agression be regulated through catharsis?

Answer 101

Catharsis happens when we watch aggressive behaviour on television or in a boxing match. This releases pent up aggression.
• Another way Freud suggested was to find a safe activity e.g. sport that would require a certain amount of aggression. This is called sublimation.
• When aggression is released in small doses like this it is manageable.
When aggression is blocked from being released it will build up and be eventually released in the form of extreme violence/ aggression.
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Question 102

Describe evidence For catharsis

Answer 102

Megargee and Mendelsohn (1970s) interviewed people who had committed brutally aggressive crimes and given personality tests. These
criminals seemed to have been ‘over controlled’ and repressed their anger
until it built up to such an extent it just exploded following something really
trivial. The researchers concluded that If people do not let their aggression
instinct out in small amounts from time to time, the build-up will be so great they will not be able to control it.

Question 103

Describe evidence against catharsis

Answer 103

Bushman (2002) actually found that participants who had engaged in catharsis and vented their anger and aggression after they had been deliberately angered by another person were more aggressive than
those who did nothing. Which goes against the idea of catharsis, or at least suggests the effects do not last long.

Question 104

describe Freud’ psychodynamic explanation of aggression?

Answer 104

The psychodynamic approach assumes that the unconscious mind is influential
in driving behaviours so aggression is explained by using the unconscious drives in the mind.
Freud theorised that humans have an innate destructive nature deep within the unconscious. He termed this the ‘death drive’ (Thanatos)
He described this as a drive to return us to our inorganic state.
When a person is frustrated (e.g.
by parents or the superego) the aggression build ups and then is eventually released in the form of violence and aggression.
Catharsis can release aggression gradually and involves the releasing aggression through sport, watching violence on screen or playing video games.

Question 105

Idtentify the 5 stages of psychosexual development Freud proposed

Answer 105

1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage
3. Phallic Stage
4. Latency Stage
5. Genital Stage

Question 106

Desribe the oral stage in Freud’s psychosexual development

Answer 106

(0-15 months). The id is present from birth.
Libido is focused on the mouth.
Infants get pleasure from sucking and biting.
The main task that parents and child must achieve is weaning.
Psychological fixation in this stage, because of problems with weaning, can lead to smoking, chewing, overeating, and sarcasm.

Question 107

Desribe the anal stage in Freud’s psychosexual development

Answer 107

(1-3 years). The ego develops during this stage. Libido is focused on the anus and children gain pleasure from achieving control over their bodies; this will include retaining and eliminating faces as well as developing other physical skills. The main task that parents and child must achieve is toilet training. Fixation occurs as follows: overindulgence may result in messy,
disorganised people. Under-indulgence can result in overly-tidy, obsessive personalities.

Question 108

Desribe the phallic stage in Freud’s psychosexual development

Answer 108

(3-5 years). Libido is focused on the genitals. Pleasure during this stage comes from ‘playing’ with the genitals; children take interest in the difference between boys and girls and develop a strong attachment to the opposite-sex parent. The main task that parents and child must achieve is successful resolution of the attachment of the son to the mother - this is known as
Oedipus complex. A child must successfully identify with the same sex parent. This allows the development of the superego. Fixation in this stage can result in repression of sexuality.

Question 109

Desribe the latency stage in Freud’s psychosexual development

Answer 109

(5 years to puberty). Sexual feelings suppressed to allow children to focus their energy on other aspects of life; This is a time of learning, adjusting to the social environment outside the home, absorbing the culture, and developing same-sex friendships.

Question 110

Desribe the genital stage in Freud’s psychosexual development

Answer 110

(puberty onwards). This stage is marked by renewed focus on the genitals, sexual interest, desire, and the pursuit of sexual relationships.

Question 111

Give one similarity between the Psychodynamic and Biological Explanations of Aggression

Answer 111

One similarity is that they both can be considered as an innate explanation of
aggression, both supporting the nature side of the nature/nurture debate.

For example, the psychodynamic
explanation suggests that we are born with an innate unconscious death drive, Thanatos, that is driven to self destruction and to return us to an inorganic state.

In the same way, the biological explanation suggests that genetically inherited biological factors like hormone levels and brain structure can make us more likely to act aggressively e.g. high testosterone levels have been linked with aggressiveness.

Question 112

Give one difference between the Psychodynamic and Biological Explanations of Aggression

Answer 112

One difference is that the biological explanation of aggression has much scientific evidence to support it whereas the psychodynamic explanation does not have very much
scientific support.

For example, the psychodynamic
explanation is based on the existence of theoretical structures that are not directly observable such as, Thanatos, the death instinct. This part of personality is in our unconscious mind so it is difficult to know if it exists.

Whereas the biological explanation has many ideas about aggression that can be directly tested using valid measuring instruments. For example, Raine et al was able to use PET scans to
look for brain dysfunction in murderers.

Question 113

Evaluate the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression giving one strength

Answer 113

Fred’s theories have been useful
because they have led to practical applications in the form of
talking cures like psychotherapy. The idea of catharsis suggests that aggression might be reduced by people getting aggressive thoughts etc. ‘out of their system’
• However, Bushman (2002) in his study on the role of catharsis In aggression actually found that participants who had engaged in catharsis and vented their anger and aggression after they had been deliberately angered by another person were more aggressive that those who did nothing.

Question 114

Evaluate the Psychodynamic Explanation of Aggression giving one weakness

Answer 114

❌Scientific credibility is low due to use of case studies: to support and elaborate his theories. This is a problem for two reasons:
• a) Any findings on the causes of aggression from case studies are based on qualitative data so thev are open to subjective interpretation and therefore may have limited validity they will not accurately reflect what really causes aggression.
• b) Case studies, such as ‘little Hans’ have only one participant. This is a problem because it is very difficult to generalise the findings on aggression from one individual to the general population as one person cannot be representative the population as a whole.
• This means that although Freud’s theory of aggression is meant to be a general theory but it is probably not a fully valid (accurate) explanation of aggression.

❌• Freud’s theory of aggression is deterministic: It sees aggression as being caused by innate drives in the
unconscious mind over which the person has no direct control.
• This is problematic because it means that aggressive behaviour does not come from a person’s free will. this implies that violent criminals cannot be held responsible for their behaviour.