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physiology > nutrition, metabolism, and body temp (ch 23) > Flashcards

nutrition, metabolism, and body temp (ch 23) Flashcards

1
Q

what is a nutrient

A

a substance in food for growth, maintenance, and repair

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2
Q

what are major nutrients

A

the bulk of ingested food

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3
Q

major nutrients

A

carbohydrates, fat, protein

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4
Q

what are micronutrients

A

things required in small amounts

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5
Q

micronutrients

A

vitamins, minerals

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6
Q

uses for nutrients

A

metabolic fuel
cell structure and molecular synthesis

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7
Q

energy value is measured by

A

kcal = Calorie = heat energy needed to raise 1L H2O by 1C

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8
Q

food groups

A

fruit, vegetables, grain, protein, dairy, oil

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9
Q

what converts molecules into those needed to live

A

the liver

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10
Q

what are essential nutrients

A

the approximately 50 molecules that the diet must provide - cannot be synthesized by the liver

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11
Q

dietary sources of carbohydrates

A

primarily plants (starch, sugars, fiber)
some animal sources (glycogen)

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12
Q

starches are

A

complex carbs - lots of sugars strung in a long chain

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13
Q

sugars are

A

mono and disaccharides

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14
Q

fibers are

A

not digestible because we lack the necessary enzymes (insoluble - cellulose, soluble - pectin)

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15
Q

carbohydrate examples in food

A

starch - vegetables and grains
sugars - milk, fruit, cane sugar
insoluble fiber - green vegetables
soluble fiber - fruits, oats

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16
Q

carbohydrate use in body

A

glucose - major energy fuel used by cells to assemble ATP

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17
Q

which cells can only use glucose for energy

A

neurons and RBCs

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18
Q

what happens to excess glucose

A

it is converted to glycogen or fat and stored

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19
Q

what can be converted to glucose

A

fructose and galactose

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20
Q

recommended intake of carbohydrates

A

45-65% of total caloric intake, mostly complex (fruits, vegetables, grains)

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21
Q

highly refined carbohydrates can cause

A

obesity, chronic disease, increased risk of type 2 diabetes

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22
Q

difference between saturated and unsaturated fats

A

saturated - lack of double bonds, animal sources (meat/dairy), solid at room temp
unsaturated - at least one double bond, plant oil/nut sources

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23
Q

where can cholesterol come from

A

egg yolk, meats, organs, shellfish, milk products
ALSO, liver makes around 85% of necessary cholesterol

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24
Q

what are essential fatty acids

A

fatty acids that cannot be made by the liver from other fats

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25
Q

essential fatty acid examples

A

linoleic and linolenic acid (found in most veg oils)

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26
Q

function of lipids (general)

A

major fuel source for liver and muscle cells

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27
Q

function of phospholipids

A

component of cell membranes

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28
Q

function of adipose tissue

A

energy stores, cushioning

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29
Q

function of prostaglandins

A

inflammation, smooth muscle contraction

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30
Q

function of cholesterol

A

important for membranes, bile, and hormones

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31
Q

dietary recommendations for fats per the AHA

A

fats - 30% or less of total caloric intake
cholesterol - less than 200 mg/dL in blood

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32
Q

what are complete proteins

A

proteins containing all essential amino acids (animal sources)

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33
Q

what are incomplete proteins

A

proteins that do not contain all essential amino acids (plant protein)

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34
Q

can the body produce essential amino acids

A

no

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35
Q

how to get all essential amino acids without animal products

A

combine grains/cereals (grasses) with legumes (beans)

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36
Q

which proteins are used as structural materials in the body

A

insoluble fibers (collagen, elastin, actin, myosin)

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37
Q

which proteins are used as functional molecules in the body

A

soluble proteins (enzymes, hormones, antibodies)

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38
Q

protein can be used as ______ when there is not enough ___________ available

A

an alternative energy source, carbohydrates or fats

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39
Q

all amino acids must be present for _______

A

adequate protein synthesis

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40
Q

all amino acids contain _______

A

nitrogen

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41
Q

positive nitrogen balance

A

when synthesis exceeds breakdown - to grow there needs to be extra amino acids
(occurs in instances of growing muscle, pregnancy, and kids)

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42
Q

negative nitrogen balance

A

when breakdown exceeds synthesis - growth does not occur (cases of starvation, sedentary individuals, elderly)

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43
Q

anabolic hormones such as GH and sex hormones

A

induce protein synthesis

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44
Q

adrenal glucocorticoids (released during stress)

A

catabolize/breakdown protein to use as fuel

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45
Q

dietary requirements for protein

A

needs reflect age, size, metabolic rate, nitrogen balance (but the typical American diet provides plenty of protein)

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46
Q

organic compounds of vitamins

A

carbon and hyrogen

47
Q

functions of vitamins

A

helping body use nutrients
coenzymes (works with enzymes in chemical reactions)

48
Q

non-food sources of vitamins

A

D - skin
B and K - synthesized by intestinal bacteria
A - converted from beta-carotene

49
Q

characteristics of water soluble vitamins

A

all B vitamins, vitamin C
absorbed with water
not stored in body (goes quickly through urine)

50
Q

B12 absorption requires

A

intrinsic factor (parietal cells to be secreted by stomach cells)

51
Q

characteristics of fat-soluble vitamins

A

vitamins A, D, E, and K
stored in body, except for vitamin K
high levels are toxic

52
Q

how is vitamin K produced

A

by bacteria in the large intestine

53
Q

function of antioxidants/example

A

picking up electrons in the body, neutralize free radicals (vitamins C, A, E)

54
Q

what are free radicals

A

chemicals with extra electrons that mainly damage proteins

55
Q

minerals are

A

inorganic materials/ions, mainly metals

56
Q

minerals required in moderate amounts/how much

A

greater than 200 mg/day of the following: calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, chlorine, sodium

57
Q

minerals required in trace amounts

A

iron, fluorine, zinc, copper, iodine, maganese

58
Q

function of mineral

A

working with nutrients to ensure proper body function

59
Q

how is mineral toxicity prevented

A

uptake and excretion are balanced

60
Q

function of calcium and phosphorus

A

needed for bones

61
Q

function of iron

A

essential for heme in hemoglobin

62
Q

function of iodine

A

necessary for T3/T4 thyroid hormone synthesis

63
Q

sodium, chloride, and potassium are all

A

major electrolytes

64
Q

metabolism is

A

biochemical reactions inside cells that involve nutrients (how we get energy)

65
Q

types of metabolic reactions

A

anabolism - synthesis of large molecules from small (energy in)
catabolism - breakdown of complex structures to simpler ones (energy out)

66
Q

examples of metabolic reactions

A

anabolism: amino acids –> protein
catabolism: food + O2 –> CO2 + H2O + energy

67
Q

cellular respiration

A

the catabolism/oxidization of food to fuel, captures energy to form ATP from ADP + phosphate

68
Q

phosphorylation

A

when a molecule gives a phosphate group to another, giving them the energy to perform cell activities that require energy

69
Q

stages of metabolism in processing nutrients

A

digestion, absorption, and transport to tissues
cellular processing (in cytoplasm)

70
Q

how is food oxidized for fuel

A

pairs of hydrogen atoms are removed from food step by step, then the pairs combine with oxygen to form H2O

71
Q

types of cellular respiration

A

glycolysis, Krebs (citric acid) cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

72
Q

oxidized vs reduced substances

A

oxidized - loses electrons or hydrogen, and energy
reduced - gains electrons or hydrogen, and energy

73
Q

characteristics of redox reactions

A

catalyzed by enzymes (often require help from coenzymes)

74
Q

characteristics/examples of coenzymes

A

acts as hydrogen or electron acceptors
ex: vitamin B derivatives (B3 niacin, B2 riboflavin), NAD+ (from niacin), FAD (from riboflavin)

75
Q

substrate level phosphorylation

A

type of ATP synthesis in which high-energy phosphates are directly transferred to ADP

76
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

more complex type of ATP synthesis, produces most ATP

77
Q

oxidative phosphorylation process

A

direct (usually in cytoplasm) - energy is used to pump H+ across the inner mitochondrial membrane
indirect (mitochondria) - H+ flows back through ATP synthase membrane channel, energy is used to phosphorylate ADP

78
Q

complete glucose catabolism requires three pathways

A

glycolysis
Krebs cycle
electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

79
Q

characteristics of glycolysis

A

10 steps, anaerobic, occurs in cytosol
glucose –> two pyruvates
produces ATP faster than aerobic respiration
yields far less ATP (1 glucose : 2 ATP)

80
Q

glycolysis steps

A

if no oxygen present, NADH gives H+ back to pyruvic acid, reducing it to lactic acid
lactate leaves the cell and goes to the liver
may be converted back to glucose for release into blood or for storage as glycogen

81
Q

characteristics of the Krebs cycle

A

occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
fueled by pyruvic acid
1 glucose : 2 pyruvic acid molecules (2 Krebs cycles)

82
Q

Krebs cycle steps

A

pyruvic acid loses one carbon to form acetyl group
then combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl-coenzyme A
coenzyme A takes acetic acid to Krebs cycle
acetyl-coenzyme A combines with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid
two carbons are removed as CO2 and energy is passed to ATP, NACH + H+, and FADH2
oxaloacetic acid is regenerated

83
Q

characteristics of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

A

directly uses oxygen
NADH + H+ and FADH2 have hydrogen
1 glucose : 30 ATP

84
Q

electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation steps

A

hydrogen atoms combine with O2 to form H2O
released energy is given to ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

85
Q

characteristics of lipid metabolism

A

greatest energy yield of the macromolecules
glycerol pathway - sugar enters glycolysis to Krebs
fatty acid pathway - chains broken off in two carbon fragments and enters the Krebs cycle

86
Q

a lack of carbohydrate in one’s diet leads to

A

lots of acetyl CoA and ketones

87
Q

characteristics of protein metabolism

A

proteins are continuously broken down and replaced - amino acids are recycled for new proteins or another compound, or oxidized for energy or converted to fat for storage

88
Q

how are amino acids oxidized

A

first deaminated (NH2 removed), then most are converted to various chemicals of the Krebs cycle
most nitrogen waste is converted into urea by the liver and excrete in the urine

89
Q

metabolic rate

A

total heat produced by chemical reactions and friction within the body

90
Q

basal metabolic rate

A

minimum number of chemical reactions needed to live

91
Q

what influences BMR

A

body surface area ration, age, gender, body temperature, stress, thyroxine (T3/T4)

92
Q

at rest, how is heat produced

A

organs - heart, liver, brain, kidney

93
Q

during exercise, how is heat produced

A

muscles

94
Q

normal body temperature is

A

37C or 98F

95
Q

why is a body temperature of 37C needed

A

optimal range for body enzyme activity (increased temperature denatures enzymes)
children under five have seizures at 41C
limit for life: 43C

96
Q

tissues may tolerate ________

A

low body temperatures

97
Q

core vs shell temperature

A

core temp - highest/most constant
shell (skin) temp - usually lower, fluctuates between 20-40C

98
Q

mechanisms of heat exchange with the environment

A

radiation
conduction
convection
evaporation

99
Q

radiation

A

heat exchange through infrared rays

100
Q

conduction

A

heat exchange through direct contact

101
Q

convection

A

heat exchange through air movement

102
Q

evaporation

A

heat exchange through water converting into gas

103
Q

______ heat loss accompanies ______ water loss

A

insensible

104
Q

insensible vs sensible heat loss

A

insensible - lungs, mucous membranes, skin (sweat)
sensible - when body temperature rises and you sweat (aware)

105
Q

the ______ region of the hypothalamus receives afferent input from ______

A

preoptic, peripheral (skin) and central (deep) thermoreceptors

106
Q

after receiving afferent input, the hypothalamus initiates

A

involuntary heat-loss and heat-promoting activities

107
Q

types of heat-promoting mechanisms

A

constriction of BVs in extremities and skin
shivering
increased metabolic rate via epinephrine and NE
chemical thermogenesis
adipose tissue thermogenesis
enhanced thyroxine release

108
Q

types of heat-loss mechanisms

A

dilation of cutaneous BVs, increasing blood to extremities and skin
sweating

109
Q

hyperthermia

A

increased core body temperature

110
Q

characteristics of heat exhaustion

A

collapse usually after vigorous exercise
dehydration with decrease in BP
heat-loss mechanisms still functioning

111
Q

heat stroke begins at a core body temperature of _____C

A

41

112
Q

characteristics of heat stroke

A

positive feedback mechanism (makes issue worse)
sweat stops - skin hot and dry
organs damages through denatured proteins
if not corrected, can lead to coma or death

113
Q

characteristics of a fever

A

controlled hyperthermia
macrophages release cytokines/pyrogens that cause fever
damaged tissues release prostaglandins that reset the hypothalamic thermostat

114
Q

characteristics of hypothermia

A

low body temperature due to exposure
vital signs decrease
at core temperature of 30-32C, shivering stops
loss of judgement –> coma –> death at 21C by cardiac arrest

physiology (11 decks)

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