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biology > Nucleic Acids > Flashcards

Nucleic Acids Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the nitrogenous based in DNA called?

A

Adenine ——— Thymine

Cytosine ——— Guanine

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2
Q

How are the components of a nucleotide joined?

A

Via condensation reactions

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3
Q

What are the nitrogenous based in RNA called?

A

Adenine —— Uracil

Cytosine —— Guanine

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4
Q

Name the roles of different types of RNA

A

Transferring genetics from DNA to ribosomes

Making up ribosome

Protein synthesis

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5
Q

What sugar makes up

DNA

RNA

A

DNA = deoxyribose

RNA =ribose

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6
Q

what do DNA + RNA stand for?

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Ribonucleic acid

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7
Q

What are the purine bases called?

A

Adenine

Guanine

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8
Q

What are the pyrimidine bases called?

A

Thymine

Cytosine

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9
Q

What does anti-parallel mean?

A

They are parallel but run in opposite directions

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10
Q

Why are the polynucleotides in DNA anti-parallel?

A

DNA polymerase is only complementary to 3 prime end so can only bond nucleotides in one directions

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11
Q

What are chromatins?

A

DNA +Histone

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12
Q

What makes two DNA molecules different?

A

Proportions and sequence of bases

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13
Q

Why is DNA charged?

A

Phosphate group are negative

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14
Q

Why must DNA be stable?

A

To ensure genetics are passed in unchanged

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15
Q

How is DNA a stable molecule?

A

Phosphodiester bonds= strong covalent bond

Sugar phosphate Backbone and double helix = protect more chemically reactive bases

Hydrogen bonds= collectively strong

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16
Q

What is base stacking ?

A

Forces of attraction between adjacent bases on one polynucleotide

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17
Q

Why is it useful for hydrogen bonds to be present between bases?

A

To easily separate polynucleotides for DNA replication

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18
Q

What allows DNA to carry so much genetic info?

A

Very large molecule

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19
Q

What do the backbone and helical structure ensure?

A

Protection of genetic info from chemical and physical forces

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20
Q

Why is base pairing used?

A

For easy transfer of information (as RNA) and replication of DNA

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21
Q

What biological molecule was thought to carry genetic info? +why

A

Proteins

DNA was though to have to few components

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22
Q

Briefly describe the puemonia experiment

A

Nice injected with:
Dead harmful strain= alive
Live safe strain= alive
Both= dead

Safe strain developed ability to produce toxins using DNA from dead strain.

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23
Q

What were the possible explanations for the puemonia experiment?

A

1) not all harmful strain was killed
2) Safe strain mutated (unlikely as repeats were taken)
3) safe strain used DNA as instructions to produce toxins

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24
Q

How were viruses used to prove DNA is hereditary material ?

A

One viruse has radioactive DNA
other virus had radioactive Protein

Only bacteria infected with first virus showed signs of radioactivity

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25
Q

What’s a bacteriophage?

A

A virus that infects and kills bacteria

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26
Q

How are viruses made to have radioactive protein and DNA

A

DNA= Radioactive phosphorus

Protein= radioactive sulfur (r groups)

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27
Q

What are the two main stages of DNA replication?

A

Nuclear division-
Nucleus divides by mitosis or meiosis

Cytokinesis-
Whole cell divides

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28
Q

What conditions are necessary for DNA replication to occur and why

A

DNA polymerase must be present- to catalyse formation of phosphodiester bonds

Free nucleotides- to form new polypeptide

Energy- in form of ATP

Two DNA strands- act as template

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29
Q

What is the first stage of DNA replication?

A

Breaking hydrogen bonds between base pairs

Replication form forms

ATP activates free nucleotides

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30
Q

What is stage two of DNA replication?

A

Polynucleotide strands act as templates

Hydrogen bonds form between complementary base pairs between free and original bases

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31
Q

What is stage three of DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerase catalyses the condensation reaction to form phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides on new polynucleotide.

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32
Q

Why is DNA replication called semi-conservative?

A

Half of the original DNA is preserved

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33
Q

What occurs to speed up DNA replication?

A

Two replication forks form

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34
Q

What is conservative DNA replication?

A

Where the original DNA is unchanged and acts like a template for the new strand

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35
Q

What is dispersive DNA replication?

A

When the original DNA is dispersed and combines with free nucleotides randomly

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36
Q

Who conducted an experiment to prove semi-conservative DNA replication?

A

Meselson and Stahl

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37
Q

What were the conditions for Meselsons and Stahls experiment?

A

Bacteria grown in light (14) nitrogen

Bacteria grown in heavy (15) nitrogen

For many generations

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38
Q

Briefly describe Meselsons and Stahls experiment?

A

1) grow bacteria in 15N for many generations
2) transfer to 14N for one generation
3) Centrifuge
4) repeat for 2nd and 3rd generation

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39
Q

Describe the distribution of 15N and 14N in the first and second and third generation

A

15N. 14N
0) 100. 0

1) . 50. 50
2) . 25. 75
3) . 12.5. 87.5

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40
Q

How was nitrogen supplied in Meselson and Stahls experiment?

A

By ammonium ions

NH4+

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41
Q

What were the expected results for Meselson and Stahls experiment for the conservative model of DNA replication?

A

Never hybrid DNA
(No medium density)

Only ever heavy and light DNA
After generations more light DNA forms

42
Q

What were the expected results for Meselson and Stahls experiment for the dispersive model of DNA replication?

A

Only ever hybrid DNA

43
Q

What does ATP stand for?

A

Adenosine triphosphate

44
Q

When is ATP produced?

A

During oxidation of organic molecules

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
And photosynthesis

45
Q

Is ATP soluble or insoluble?

A

Soluble

46
Q

What does ATP comprise of?

A

Adenine
Ribose sugar
Three phosphate groups

47
Q

What is ATP also know as ?

A

A phosphorylated RNA nucleotide

Or

Nucleotide derivative

48
Q

Name the enzyme involved in the hydrolysis of ATP

A

ATP hydrolase

49
Q

What is the removed phosphate group uses for after ATP hydrolysis?

A

To phosphorylate other molecules

50
Q

Why does ATP hydrolysis have a low activation energy?

A

Due to unstable bonds

51
Q

What is required for ATP hydrolysis?

A

Water

52
Q

What enzyme is involved in the formation of ATP?

A

ATP synthase

53
Q

What symbol represents a phosphate group?

A

Pi

54
Q

Is the synthesis of ATP exothermic or endothermic?

A 
Endothermic
Because: 
Reversible reaction
ATP hydrolysis releases energy so must be exothermic 
Other direction= endothermic
55
Q

Where does the energy stores in ATP come from?

A

The hydrolysis of carbohydrates or lipids

56
Q

What type of reaction is the synthesis of ATP?

A

Condensation reaction

57
Q

Where does ATP synthesis occur?

A

In chloroplasts + mitochondria

58
Q

What are the different ways ATP can be made?

A

1) photophosphorylation
During photosynthesis in chlorophyll

2) oxidative phosphorylation
Animal and plant cells during respiration

3) substrate-level phosphorylation
In animal and plant cells when donor molecular provide phosphate

59
Q

Why is ATP used as an immediate energy source not glucose?

A

The hydrolysis of ATP occurs in one quick reaction whereas the hydrolysis of glucose is slower. ATP provides immediate energy

ATP stores less energy than glucose so energy released is more manageable. No waste (thermal) energy.

60
Q

Why is ATP an immediate energy source?

A

Because of its unstable bonds

61
Q

How many ATP molecules are made from one glucose molecule?

A

38

62
Q

What are the main uses or ATP?

A

1) movement
2) metabolic processes
3) activating molecules
4) active transport
5) secretion

63
Q

How is energy used for movement?

A

Allows muscle filaments to slide past each other so whole muscle shortens

64
Q

How is energy used in metabolic processes?

A

In the condensation reactions needed to form larger molecules

65
Q

How is energy used in secretion?

A

For the formation of lysosomes

66
Q

How is energy used in active transport?

A

To alter the shape of carrier proteins in the plasma membranes allowing molecules to move against the concentration gradient

67
Q

How is ATP used in the activation of molecules ?

A

The phosphate groups removed via condensation reactions attach to other molecules which lowers their AE

68
Q

How can you tell that lots of movement, active transport, secretion, metabolic processes or activation of molecules occurs within a cell/ tissue ?

A

Large and/or many mitochondria for ATP synthase

69
Q

What is a dipolar molecule?

A

A molecule with two poles

70
Q

What bonds cause cohesion ?

A

Hydrogen: between oxygen and hydrogen

71
Q

What is specific heat capacity?

A

The energy needed to raise 1KG of a substance by 1 degree

72
Q

Does water have a high or low specific heat capacity?

+ why

A

High:

Due to hydrogen bonds which are collectively strong

73
Q

Why is waters specific heat capacity important to organisms?

A

1) allows an optimum temperature for proteins so they don’t denature

2) provides a thermo stable environment for organisms to live in.
(Aquatic)
3) provides thermo stable environment within organisms (blood)

74
Q

How does waters high specific heat capacity link to its function?

A

Allows water to act as a buffer against sudden temperature changes

75
Q

What is latent heat of vaporisation?

A

The energy needed to change state of 1KG of a substance from liquid to gas without a temp change

76
Q

Does water have a high or low latent heat of vaporisation ?

+why

A

High:

Due to the high amounts of energy required to break hydrogen bonds

77
Q

How many calories are needed to evaporate 1g of water?

A

577

78
Q

How does waters latent heat of vaporisation link to its function?

A

Allows lots of energy to be removed from body.

Thermal energy (placed into breaking hydrogen bonds) converted to kinetic energy in water molecules

79
Q

What is surface tension?

A

A measure of the force needed to stretch/ break the surface of a liquid

80
Q

Why is waters surface tension so high?

A

Due to cohesion and adhesion

81
Q

Why is waters high surface tension useful for organisms ?

A

Allows animals to live on water

Allows water to travel up xylem

82
Q

How does water latent heat of vaporisation and surface tension link?

A

High surface tension means water is pulled into body of water instead or evaporating

83
Q

How much of a mammals body is water?

A

65%

84
Q

How much of a jellyfishes body is water?

A

98%

85
Q

What are the main functions of water?

A

1) a metabolite
2) a solvent
3) cooling
4) allowing light through
5) structure

86
Q

What is a metabolite?

A

A substance used up in a metabolic reaction

87
Q

How is water used in reactions?

A

In hydrolysis

In photosynthesis (as raw material)

Reactions occur whilst aqueous

88
Q

Why is water a good solvent ?

A

Is dipolar -

has ability to attract charges particles to opposite ends of particle -

can separate molecules

89
Q

What can water dissolve?

A 
Urea 
Oxygen 
Polysaccharides 
Amino acids 
Enzymes 
Ammonia
90
Q

Why is it important for water to be a good solvent?

A

To allow the transportation of substances

91
Q

Why does water offer support?

A

Not easily compressed

Responsible for the turgid pressure of plants and hydrostatic skeleton of earthworms

92
Q

Why is it useful for water to be transparent?

A

Allow light through jelly-like substance in eye to retina

To allow light through palisade layer for photosynthesis

93
Q

What is an inorganic ion?

A

An atom or compound that has lost or gained electrons

94
Q

Where can inorganic ions be found?

A

Cytoplasm

Body fluids

95
Q

Give examples of inorganic ions and their functions

A

Iron:
Transport oxygen

Phosphate:
ATP and DNA formation

Hydrogen:
Regulate PH to allow optimum conditions for proteins

Sodium:
Transport glucose and amino acids across plasma membranes

96
Q

Who proposed the theory of semi-conservative DNA replication?

A

Watson and crick

97
Q

Why is waters high latent heat of vaporisation an efficient tool?

A

Allows lots of energy to be transferred to the environment without losing lots of energy

98
Q

What is the role of single stranded DNA in DNA replication?

A

Act as a template

Determines order of bases

99
Q

What is a nucleotide made of?

A

Pentose sugar

Nitrogenous base
Inorganic phosphate ion

100
Q

Why is there variability in the stability in the stability of DNA?

A

3 H bonds between C+G

Only 2 between A+T

biology (28 decks)

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