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Mass Transport Mamals And Plants Flashcards

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1
Q

Name the four Chambers of the heart

A

Left and right atrium and ventricle

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2
Q

Name the vessels coming in and out of the right side on the heart

A

In: vena cava
Out:pulmonary artery

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3
Q

Name the vessels coming in and out of the left side on the heart

A

In:pulmonary vein
Out:aorta

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4
Q

What seperate the 2 sides of the heart?

A

Septum

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5
Q

Name the valve between the ventricle and atrium and func

A

Atrioventricular valve

Prevent back flow into atrium from ventricle in ventricular systole

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6
Q

Name valve between arteries and ventricle and function

A

Semilunar valves

Prevent back flow into ventricle from artery

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7
Q

Name valve between ventricle and atrium on right side of heart

A

Tricuspid

3 cusps

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8
Q

Name valve between ventricle and atrium on left side of heart

A

Bicuspid

Two cusps

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9
Q

What prevents the AV valves from inverting?

A

Tendons attached to papillary muscles

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10
Q

What is the largest artery in the body?

A

Aorta

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11
Q

Why is the max pressure in the ventricle larger than that of the atrium?

A

Ventricle has thicker muscular wall because needs larger force to pump blood at higher Pa to travel further

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12
Q

Why is the left side of the heart more muscular?

A

More muscle means larger contraction force means larger Pa means blood is pumped further (Systemic VS pulmonary)

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13
Q

Where does the blood that supplies the heart come from?

A

The coronary arteries that branch off the aorta

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14
Q

What is the name for a heart attack and what does it mean?

A

Myocardial infarction

Heart+ tissue death

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15
Q

What are risk factors?

A

Factors that increase the liklihood of an individual getting the disease

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16
Q

What are the risk factors of cardiovascular disease?

A 
Smoking
High blood pressure
Blood cholesterol(diet)
Age
Sex
Genetics
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17
Q

How does smoking affect the risk of CHD?

A

Nicotine makes platelets more sticky increasing risk of thrombosis + stimulates adrenaline production (increase blood Pa and heart rate

CO irreversibly binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyheamoglobin displacing oxygen = heart works harder to get enough O2 to tissue.

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18
Q

Define thrombosis

A

Blood clot near heart

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19
Q

How does high blood pressure increase risk for CHD?

A

Heart has to work harder to increase pressure of ventricles above arteries to pump blood out

Can cause aneurysms as walls weaken

Walls may thicken and harden restricting flow of blood

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20
Q

How does blood cholestetol increase risk for CHD?

A

LDL cholesterol promotes fatty material depositing in tissue such as arteries = narrow arteries = thrombosis

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21
Q

What’s the difference between HDL And LDL?

A

HDL = remove cholesterol from tissue to liver

LDL= remove cholesterol from liver to tissue

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22
Q

Define atheroma

A

Fatty deposits

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23
Q

How is cholesterol Transported in the blood?

A

Lipoproteins

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24
Q

How does diet affect risk for CHD?

A

High salt= high BP

High saturated fat=high cholesterol

Antioxidants and dietary fibre (non-starchy polysaccharides) = decreased risk

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25
Q

Define myocardial infarction

A

Heart - tissue death

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26
Q

Outline the treatments for CHD

A

Statins
Stents
Aspirin (makes platelets less sticky)

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27
Q

Why is the heat cycle a cycle?

A

Continuous

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28
Q

Name the main stages of the heart cycle

A

Atrial systole
Ventricular systole
Diastole

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29
Q

Describe diastole

A

Heart muscles are relaxed
Ventricle walls recoil so SL valves close

Blood trickles into atrium untill pressure exceeds that of the ventricle so AV valves open

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30
Q

Describe atrial systole

A

Atrial walls contract simultaneously

Blood forced into ventricles which are relaxed
SL valves and AV valves are open

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31
Q

Describe ventricular systole

A

After a short delay after strial systole

Simultaneous contraction of ventricle walls

SL valves open
AV valves close (prevent back flow into atrium)

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32
Q

What makes the lub dub sound of the heart beat?

A

AV then SL valves snap shut

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33
Q

Why are there pressure variations in the heart?

A

Due to a closed system

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34
Q

When do the SL valves close?

A

Diastole

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35
Q

When do the SL valves open?

A

Ventricular systole

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36
Q

When do the AV valves close?

A

Ventricular systole

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37
Q

When do the AV valves OPEN?

A

atrial systole

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38
Q

Why does aortic Pa never fall below 12 KPa?

A

Recoil of elastic fibres increase Pa

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39
Q

Why does the pressure in the ventricle increase during diastole?

A

Blood trickles in from the atrium as the heart fills with blood

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40
Q

Why is atrial Pa always low?

A

Thin walls= less force when contracting = less Pa

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41
Q

Why does the atrial Pa increase and then decrease during diastole?

A

Increases as blood fills atrium but then decresease once AV valves open

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42
Q

How is cardiac output calculated?

A

Stroke volume X heart rate

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43
Q

Define cardiac output

A

Volume of Blood pumped by one ventricle in a min

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44
Q

Define stroke volume

A

Volume of Blood pumped by a ventricle per contraction

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45
Q

Give units for cardiac output

A

Dm3min-1

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46
Q

State effect of strenuous exercise on heart rate and why

A

Decrease

so potential for greater cardiac output

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47
Q

State effect of strenuous exercise on heart rate and why

A

Decrease

so potential for greater cardiac output

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48
Q

State effect of strenuous exercise on stroke volume and why

A

Increased
Heart muscle increases so contraction force is greater
Volume in heart increases

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49
Q

Name the types of blood vessels

A

Arteries
Arterioles
Veins
Capillaries

50
Q

Name the tissues found in blood vessels

A

Endothelium
Smooth Muscle
Elastic fibres
Tough fiborous outer layer

51
Q

Sate the function of the tough fiborous outer layer

A

Resist Pa changes inside and outside

52
Q

What is the tough fiborous outer layer made of?

A

Collagen

53
Q

Sate the function of Smooth muscle

A

Control bloid flow by narrowing lumen

54
Q

Sate the function of endothelium

A

Reduce friction to aid blood flow

Provide SDP

55
Q

Sate the function of elastic fibres

A

Maintain Pa

Smooth out Pa changes

56
Q

Name function of arteries

A

Transport oxygenated blood from heart to Arterioles and Capillaries at high Pa

57
Q

Describe and explain adaption of arteries

A

Thick muscular walls= alter flow and maintain high Pa

Thick elastic fibres= smooth out Pa changes, maintain high Pa, resist bursting

Thick wall= resist rupture

Folded endothelium= allow diameter to increase to reduce Pa

58
Q

State func of Arterioles

A

Regulate flow of blood to capillaries (lower Pa than arteries)

59
Q

Describe and explain adaptions of Arterioles

A

More muscle than arteries

Regulate flow of blood to capillaries by reducing diameter of lumen

Less elastic fibre = blood at lower Pa

60
Q

State func of veins

A

Carry blood at low Pa from tissue to heart

61
Q

Describe and explain adaptions of veins

A

Thin muscle = low blood Pa, contraction won’t alter Pa

Thin elastic fibres= Pa too low to allow recoil to change flow, won’t burst

Thin walls= allow compression by skeletal muscle to aid flow

Extended shape = no structure

Large lumen= increase blood flow (ensure same vol of blood enters heart as leaves)

Pocket valves= prevent back flow when compressed

62
Q

What are venules

A

Blood vessels connecting capillaries to veins

63
Q

Where along veins are pocket valves found?

A

Regular intervals

64
Q

Describe the structure of valves

A

Flaps of tough fiborous tissue in cusp (bowl) shape

65
Q

State the function of capillaries

A

Exchange metabolic materials with tissues

Connect arteries to veins

66
Q

Describe and explain how capillaries are adapted

A

Only endothelial tissue = SDP

Spaces between cells= allow white blood cells to permeate

Many + branched = large SA:vol = increased rate of diffusion

Narrow diameter= compress red blood cells= SDP and slow flow of blood (more time for diffusion to occur across), allow capillaries to permeate tissue.

67
Q

What is tissue fluid?

A

The liquid that bathes cells in tissue and is their immediate environment

Same as plasma but no plasma proteins

68
Q

Why is tissue fluid necessary?

A

Allows constant environment

Allows all cells to get metabolic materials

69
Q

Name the main stages of tissue fluid formation and where they occur

A

Ultrafiltration (Arterioles end of capillary)

Reabsorption (venule end of capillary)

Drainage (at lymph vessel)

70
Q

Describe how tissue fluid forms

A

At Arteriole end of capillary:

Hydrostatic Pa of blood > hydrostatic Pa of tissue fluid = water and dissolved substances forces out (plasma proteins too large to fit through)

Osmotic Pa of plasma< osmotic Pa of tissue fluid = resistance

71
Q

State the two ways tissue fluid is reabsorbed

A

Through capillary

Through lymph vessel and then joins blood at vena cava

72
Q

Describe and explain how tissue fluid is reabsorbed into the capillaries

A

At the venous end the HPa of the tissue fluid is > the blood plasma so small molecules are forced in

Osmotic Pa of plasma < tissue fluid due to plasma proteins (lowering WP) to water moves into capillaries via Osmosis down water potential GRADIENT.

73
Q

What the difference between lymph and tissue fluid?

A

Lymph has more fatty material

74
Q

What the difference between plasma and tissue fluid

A

Plasma proteins

75
Q

State the function of the xylem

A

Transport water and dissolved ions

76
Q

Describe the structure of the xylem

A

Dead cells strengthened with lignin
Hollow (no organelles) with no end walls
Pits in walls

77
Q

Why is the xylem Hollow and have no end walls

A

To aid flow (no obstruction)

78
Q

Why does the xylem have Pits in its walls?

A

To allow lateral movement of water

79
Q

Why is the xylem strengthened with lignin?

A

They are dead cells so have no support

Lignin prevents collapse under tension

80
Q

How is lignin distributed within the xylem

A

In helical rings

81
Q

How is the xylem adapted to allow a continuous column of water to form

A

No end walls

Pits in walls

No organelles

82
Q

What are the main stages of the movement of water through the xylem?

A

Evaporation

Transpiration

Tension and cohesión

83
Q

How is water uptake by the root?

A

Mineral ions are actively Transported into the xylem

Lowers WP causing water to move in via Osmosis

84
Q

Outline the first stage of movement of water in xylem

A

Water evaporates from mesophyll cells due to energy of sun into air space and then diffuses out of stomata via transpiration.

This lowers the water potential of the cells neighbouring the xylem

85
Q

Outline the second stage of movement of water in xylem

A

Water moves via Osmosis into adjacent mesophyll cells with lower WP

Cohesion of water molecules creates continuous column due to H bonds between molecules

Creates tension in xylem causing water to be drawn up via transpiration pull

86
Q

Explain how water moves across the leaf

A

Water evaporates from mesophyll near stomata into air spaces then diffuses out via transpiration

Lowers WP of cell causing water to move from neighbouring cells, lowers WP of that cell and cycle continues.

Water moves down WP gradient

87
Q

Is transpiration active or passive

A

Passive

No ATP

Energy of Sun

88
Q

What evidence is there for the Cohesion-tension theory

A

Diameter of trees in small during day (more transpiration= greater tension= pull in walls of xylem)

Water does leak out of xylem (under tension)

If xylem broken transpiration stops (air bubble into xylem breaks continuous column)

89
Q

Why does the flow of water in xylem increase during day

A

Increased light intensity=stomata open= more transpiration

Warmer = more energy for evaporation

90
Q

What is used to measure the rate of transpiration and what must be assumed and why is it not always true?

A

Potometer

Rate of uptake = rate of transpiration

Used in reactions (hydrolysis)

91
Q

Describe how to set up a potometer

A

Submerge shoot in water and cut end

Submerge and fill potometer

Fit shoot to potometer underwater using rubber tube

Remove potometer from water keeping capillary tube in water

Seal joints with jelly

Remove capillary tube briefly to introduce air bubble

Full reservoir and close tap

Align ruler with capillary tube

92
Q

Describe how to use a potometer in an investigation into temperature and transpiration rates

A

Set up potometer

Place potometer into room at 10°c and record distance travelled by bubble in 2hours

Open reservoir tap to reset bubble

Place plant in hotter room and repeat

Repeat for other temperature

93
Q

Define translocation

A

Movement of nutrients around the plant

94
Q

By what mechanism does sucrose get Transported around the plant

A

Translocation

95
Q

Describe the phloem

A

Living cells

Sieve tube elements and companion cells

Sieve plates and pores

Very thin walls

Few organelles and cytoplasm

96
Q

Describe and explain the adaptions of companion cells

A

Lots of large mitochondria= aerobic Respiration= ATP for active transport

Many ribosomes=synthesis enzymes for Respiration

97
Q

How is the cytoplasm of Sieve tubes and companion cells linked?

A

Plamsodesmata

98
Q

What does plamsodesmata mean

A

Via cell walls

99
Q

Define a source

A

A cells that produces excess glucose and so excess sucrose

100
Q

Define a sink.

A

A cells that is sucrose deficient

Site of sucrose use or storage

101
Q

Give examples of sources

A

Leaves

102
Q

Give examples of sinks

A

Seeds
Root
Fruit
Potatoes

103
Q

What is the main difference between translocation and transpiration

A

Translocation is bidirectional whereas transpiration is unidirectional

104
Q

What is carried in the Phloem

A

Cells sap:sucrose and dissolved Inorganic ions (chloride, magnesium, potassium

105
Q

Describe the substances uptake and released by the roots

A

Up taken
Oxygen
Water
Mineral ions

Released
Carbon dioxide
Water

106
Q

Where are the phloem and xylem found?

A

In vascular bundles around the outer edges of the stem

107
Q

Which is bigger, the xylem or phloem

A

Xylem

108
Q

What is the theory of how translocation. Occurs called?

A

Mass flow hypothesis

109
Q

What are the main stages of translocation

A

Movement of sucrose into phloem from source

Mass flow

Active transport of sucrose into sink from phloem

110
Q

Describe how the sucrose gets from the source to the phloem

A

H+ ions are actively Transported out of the companion cell creating a H+ concentration gradient.

Sucrose molecules are co-transported down the H+ ion conc gradient via co transport protein into companion cell from source

Sucrose conc in cell increases

Sucrose moves via facilitated diffusion from companion cell to Sieve tube element

111
Q

Describe how mass flow occurs in the Phloem

A

As sucrose conc increases at source the WP decreases below that of the xylem

Water moves by Osmosis down WP gradient from xylem to Sieve tube elements increasing hydrostsic Pa

Sap moves down Pa gradient towards source

112
Q

Describe how sucrose is Transported into sink cells from STE

A

By active transport using ATP and a carrier protein

113
Q

Why is the HPa of the phloem near the sink lower than at the source?

A

At source water moves in from xylem as sucrose is Transported into STE decreasing WP

at sink sucrose conc decreases as its actively Transported into companion and then sink cells so WP increases so water moves into xylem

114
Q

What evidence supports the mass flow hypothesis

A

Increase in sucrose conc in leaves follows increase in phloem

Sap flows out of phloem when cut showing Pa inside

Metabolic inhibitors or lack of oxygen prevents translocation occuring

Ultrastructure of companion cells (many large mitochondria)

At night or in sahde downward flow of sap ceases

Sucrose conc in leaves > roots

Translocation occurs faster than diffusion should allow

115
Q

What evidence disproves the mass flow hypothesis

A

Not all solutes move at the same speed

Sucrose arrives to all parts of plant at sane time despite differing needs

Sieve plates seem to obstruct flow

116
Q

Name the main methods of investigating transport in plants

A

Ringing

Tracer

Aphids

117
Q

Describe how ringing experiments work

A

A layer of bark is removed around the whole of a stalk to remove the phloem but leave the xylem intact

After some time the area above the ring swell and cells further down die

118
Q

Explain how ringing provides evidence of the phloem being used in translocation

A

Analysis of fluid is swollen part shows high conc of sucrose and Amino acids (contains same as phloem)

Non-photosynthetic Cells die further down due to lack of sucrose so lack of glucose so less Respiration so less ATP synthesised so less energy available for metabolic processes

Only phloem removed so must be due to phloem

119
Q

Describe and explain how aphids can be used to prove the phloem carries sucrose

A

Let aphid insert stylet

Anaesthetise aphid and cut off body fromm stylet leaving stylet inside phloem

Drain off phloem and analyse content

Contains high conc of Amino acids and sucrose

120
Q

What can aphids be used to prove

A

The increase sucrose conc in leaves is followed by and increase in sucrose conc in phloem

121
Q

How can Tracers be used to investigate transport in plants?

A

Radioactive carbon is introduced into plant

Incorporated in glucose in Respiration and then sucrose

Movement can be traced by cutting the stem above and below leaf and exposing an x-ray film to it. Darker areas show radioactivity in phloem

Can also be used to calculate rate of flow of sap in phloem.

122
Q

What is autoradiography

A

A technique that uses X-ray film

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