nicotine 2 Flashcards
identify a way of collecting systematic evidence on the role smoking cues have in motivating drug seeking/taking
diary studies
- paper or digital
- used to record triggers for smoking behaviour
according to Shiffman (1996), where did almost 100% of relapses occur?
- when cigarettes were available
- when smoking was allowed
what does the data from Shiffman (1996) suggest about situational cues?
suggests situational cues for drug availability/acceptability play critical role in maintaining drug use
explain what the reinforcement model is
- suggests that through associative learning, drug associated cues and contexts have the capacity to motivate drug seeking behaviour
example:
- drug associated cues and contexts: sight/smell of tobacco smoke
- drug seeking and taking behaviour: buying cigarettes, lighting up
explain Pavlovian conditioning
- using an unconditioned stimulus to produce an unconditioned response
- then pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus to produce no response at first
- overtime, unconditioned stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus
- conditioned stimulus produces conditioned response
what does the stimulus-response habit theory say about the drug addicts?
drug addicts behaviour = automatically controlled by external cues with no thoughts for consequences (done unconsciously)
explain the stimulus-response habit theory for smoking
- theory suggests smoking = behaviour is as a result of learned habits
- habits formed through repeated association of smoking with certain stimuli (i.e.: stress, boredom, social situations)
- smoking becomes habit when brain links behaviour with rewarding effects of nicotine
- creates cycle of cue, craving and reward (response)
- theory suggests seeing environmental cues or triggers (i.e.: cig packet, social setting with other smokers) automatically triggers urge to smoke
- overtime habit = unconscious and automatic
what occurs at a neural level, according to the stimulus-response habit theory?
- drug-induced dopamine activity reinforces synaptic connection between drug cues and drug-seeking response
- as a consequence of change in synaptic strength, drug cues elicit drug-seeking response directly
- association made between drug-dopamine activity and drug-related stimulus
identify problem for the habit theory
cravings
how does cravings pose as an problem for the habit theory?
- relapse and drug use often accompanied by urge/craving to smoke
- cravings can be accompanied by mental image of drug
- most addicts report their drug seeking behaviour = undertaken intentionally
- contrasts the role of the conscious decision in the control of drug seeking behaviour
outline the cognitive model of drug use
(Tiffany, 1990)
- proposes idea that addictive behaviour = sometimes intentional
- intentional means: controlled by mental image, craving for drug
- addictive behaviour sometimes controlled automatically (like S-R habits)
- on cognitive model, drug users can switch between intentional and atomatic modes of behavioural control
if drug seeking was intentional, what correlation between craving and drug use behaviour would be expected?
perfect correlation
identify a key factor into maintaining nicotine addiction and why
- devaluation = key factor
- devaluation creates cycle of dependence, withdrawal and reinforcement
- smoker tries to quit smoking -> experiences withdrawal -> more likely to seek out nicotine to alleviate discomfort -> start smoking again
- each time individual smokes, value of cigarette decreases
- leads to increase in nicotine intake, furthering addiction
define devaluation in regards to smoking and nicotine addiction (Dickinson, 1985)
- process where perceived value or subjective reward of cigarette decreases as person becomes more addicted to nicotine
- means pleasurable effects of smoking become less intense and less satisfying as addiction grows overtime
outline Dickinson (1985) rat study and findings into devaluation
- conducted animal study on rats
- rats = trained to make lever press responses for food pellets
- in separate environment, food pellets were there for rats to consume until they were full (this reduces food value, food = devalued)
- then rats are given opportunity to press food level until infinitely (until no more food pellets left available)
FINDINGS
- found devaluation is demonstrated when rats showed reduced lever pressing
- reduced lever pressing for food pellets suggests behaviour = controlled by what the outcome of that behaviour represents (rat is aware that food is no longer appealing when it is full)
- after extensive training with pressing the lever -> rats become insensitive to devaluation (i.e.: it does not matter that behaviour is no longer rewarding)
- suggests behaviour (pressing lever) = automatic, under control of S-T habit
- rats kept pressing lever even when the outcome of food was no longer desirable (because they were full)
- applying this to smoking -> person know smoking isn’t rewarding but continues to puff on cigarette out of habit
what does the devaluation procedure demonstrate?
(Dickinson, 1985)
- transition from intentional control to behavioural autonomy (rats making own decision)
- this happens with practise
what were the findings of Dickinson (1985) rat study of devaluation?
- rats showed reduced lever pressing
- indicating rat has knowledge of the consequences of its behaviour and food is no longer appealing
- after extensive training lever pressing, rats became insensitive to devaluation
- suggests behaviour is under control of S-R habit (becomes automatic)
how can findings from Dickinson (1985) devaluation be applied to smoking?
- rats became insensitive to devaluation after extensive lever pressing
- the rats ingrained habit = continuing to seek an outcome which was no longer desirable (continuing to press lever for food pellets, even when already full)
- applying this to smoking -> person know smoking isn’t rewarding but continues to puff on cigarette out of habit
outline Dickinson (2002) study into habit learning with drugs and natural rewards
- studied rats
- rats learned to press one lever for sucrose
- rats also learned to press another lever for alcohol
- one of these rewards was devalued by pairing lithium chloride with reward (this induces sickness)
- finally, rats were given opportunity to press lever infinitely (until none left)
EXPECTED FINDINGS
- we should find that rats reduce lever pressing for whichever reward has been previously devalued
ACTUAL FINDINGS
- found that lever pressing for sucrose = decreased
- lever pressing for alcohol did not decrease
- demonstrated that alcohol seeking had come under control of habit rather than will
- for alcohol, response was controlled by external stimulus of alcohol lever automatically (without engaging an expectation of consequences for behaviour)
- demonstrating that habit learning (shown by pressing lever) = quicker for drugs compared to natural reward
what does the habit theory suggest about behaviour?
- behaviour = controlled by external cues without thought for consequences
what is the incentive salience theory? (Robinson & Berridge, 2003)
- an elaboration on the habit theory
- proposes that through Pavlovian conditioning, drug cues acquire capacity to capture attention
- attentional capture engages thought and drug and drug use
- causes user to initiate drug seeking and taking
Outline the Stroop task that looks into attentional bias for drug cues
(Gross et al., 1993)
- naming of ink colour in which a word is printed = faster when congruent
- naming of ink colour in which a word is printed = slower when incongruent
- in emotional stroop tasks, variants measure slowed response times when asked to name ink colour
- the slowing of response times to name ink colour produced by other aspects of word (meaning they relate to specific emotional states)
- increased response times provides measure of relevance for specific emotional state for that individual brought on by the word meaning
- emotional stroop task used to measure how response times are slowed by the requirement to name ink colour of drug-related words
Outline the Stroop task that looks into attentional bias for drug cues
(Gross et al., 1993)
- naming of ink colour in which a word is printed = faster when congruent
- naming of ink colour in which a word is printed = slower when incongruent
- in emotional stroop tasks, variants measure slowed response times when asked to name ink colour
- the slowing of response times to name ink colour produced by other aspects of word (meaning they relate to specific emotional states)
- increased response times provides measure of relevance for specific emotional state for that individual brought on by the word meaning
- emotional stroop task used to measure how response times are slowed by the requirement to name ink colour of drug-related words
identify a study that looks into the attentional bias for drug cues
(Jones et al. 2002)
- change detection (like spot-the-difference)
- change detection is easier for those with drug dependency if difference in images is related to drug use
