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MAURYAN EMPIRE
Dates
Founder
Geography
Last great Emperor
322-232 BCE
The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 B.C. After seizing control of the state of Magadha, Chandragupta Maurya expanded his control throughout much of India.
Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, was the last powerful king of the Maurya Empire. After an initial period of conquest, Ashoka converted to Buddhism.
After his death in 232 B.C., the Mauryan Empire collapsed and India entered a period of chaos for the next five centuries.
LIEF ERICSON
Leif Erikson (c. 970 – c. 1020) was a Norse explorer from Iceland. He was the first known European to have discovered continental North America before Christopher Columbus. According to the Sagas of Icelanders, he established a Norse settlement around the year 1000 at ‘Vinland,’ tentatively identified with the northern tip of Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
ERIC THE RED
Erik Thorvaldsson 950 – c. 1003, known as Erik the Red, was a Norwegian Viking, remembered in medieval and Icelandic saga sources as having founded the first Norse settlement in Greenland.
The appellation “the Red” most likely refers to his hair colour and the colour of his beard. Leif Erikson, the famous Icelandic explorer, was Erik’s son.
GUPTA EMPIRE
Dates
Geography
Conquered by
320-550 CE
Originated in Ganges River Settlements 320 CE. The Gupta Empire never established control over southern India, and its power over the north was tempered by a centralized administration that governed India at the local level. The invasion of the White Huns in 550s led to the Empire’s collapse, and India reverted into a number of small regional states.
SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE
1519-1521
led by Hernán Cortés
Casualties and losses
Spain: 1,000 dead, Thousands of Native Allies
Aztecs: 200,000 dead (including civilians)
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Sir THOMAS MORE
Publication
Date
Outcome
A chief writer in the English Renaissance, Sir Thomas More composed Utopia in 1516, a blueprint for a perfect society brought about by mixing civic humanism with religious ideas. More was also a prominent advocate for Church reform and opposed any break with the Catholic Church.
His opposition to the Reformation brought about his death by beheading when England broke with the Catholic Church.
DEVELOPMENT OF SAILING ⛵️
Triangular Lateen Sails
The development of triangular lateen sails enabled ships to traverse the Red Sea and Sea of China, despite contrary monsoon winds.
US WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
Boston Tea Party
Declaration of Independence
Cessation of British war efforts
1773 Boston Tea Party
1776 Declaration of Independence
1782 Cessation of British war efforts
SAHARA DESERT CROSSING FOR TRADE
First Date
Weight
Who
From where to where
In approximately 100 A.D., Berber nomads began trading across the Sahara Desert using camels as pack animals. Camels proved to be well adapted to the desert and could carry up to 550 pounds of goods from Sub-Saharan Africa to the markets of Cairo.
‘SINO’ SPHERE
Define
Countries
‘Sino’ = ‘Chino’?
The “Sinosphere”, or “East Asian cultural sphere”, refers to a grouping of countries and regions in East Asia that were historically influenced by the Chinese culture. Other names for the concept include the Sinic world, the Confucian world, the Taoist world, and the Chinese cultural sphere, though the last is also used to refer particularly to the Sinophone world: the areas which speak varieties of Chinese.
The East Asian cultural sphere shares a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, Taoism and, historically, a common writing system. The core regions of the East Asian cultural sphere are China, Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
DEVELOPMENT OF FLIGHT
1903 Wright Brothers
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
Optimisations to make
Reorder cards
Oct 1962 exact dates, others month
Missile Installations Question - Specify:
- Evidence of Soviet missile installations in Cuba
- Soviet Foreign Minister, Andrei Gromyko, warns that an American attack on Cuba could mean war with the Soviet Union
- A U-2 flying over western Cuba obtains photographs of missile sites
PERIODIC TABLE
Add list of Prompts to comprehensive cards
Number
Etymology
Group (remove old group)
Family
(Add Period)
PERIODIC TABLE
last group cards
Smaller groups - specify count of how many required
Transition metals - separate by period
Lanthanides and Actinides - list numbers as prompts and for confirmation
Non-Metals - specify it’s the elements found between the Metalloids and the Halogens on the periodic table plus H
[Add pictures if possible]
AFGHANISTAN WAR
Needs to say “SOVIET AFGHANISTAN WAR”
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
Surrender and Lincoln’s assassination
Add ‘1865’
AMERICAN INDIAN WARS
Specify question
3 states
Year range
Two leaders
WOUNDED KNEE MASSACRE
Specify question also
THE MAYANS
Location
Answer card doesn’t say!
CARAL
Dates
Location
Technologies
Caral is believed to be the first city in the Americas and arose in central Peru along the Supe River around 2600 B.C.
Although archeological and historical research is ongoing, it is known that early Andes cultures were skilled in metallurgy, weaving, and pottery.
FRENCH VIETNAM
Only 1862-1954
Remove Next info about Vietnam War
Could add Vietminh
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Reach into Europe
The 1529(?) siege of Vienna marked the high point of Ottoman power. Although they were defeated at Vienna, for the next 300 years the Ottoman Empire controlled most of the Balkans, including modern-day Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Greece, and Serbia. A weaker Ottoman force would lay siege to Vienna again in 1683 with similar results.
ALGERIAN WAR
Dates
1954 - 1962
War France fought in Northern Africa to maintain control of its longtime colony
INDULGENCES
Define
Dates
Who
Why
To raise money to build St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Pope Leo X (1475-1521) authorized the sale of indulgences. The purchase of an indulgence allowed a person to shorten their (or a deceased loved one’s) time in purgatory and, in some cases, forgave sins before they were committed.
SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
Dates
Main Countries(3) Smaller role (2) Previously had colonies (2)
Control at start and end
1880-1914
The conquest of virtually the entire African continent by European nations in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
The main players were Britain, France, and Germany, with Belgium and Italy playing a smaller role
Both the Portuguese and Spanish had existing colonies on the continent
Although only 10% of Africa had been under European control in 1880, by 1914 only two African states remained independent: Ethiopia and Liberia
HO CHI MINH
1940s
1950s
Death?
20th-century Vietnamese revolutionary helped found the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945.
His forces helped drive out Japanese forces in the 40s and defeat the French in 1954. Although he died during the Vietnam War, he served as an inspiration for the People’s Army of Vietnam and the Viet Cong fighting for a united, communist Vietnam. Saigon was renamed in his honor.
THE (SECOND) BOER WAR
Dates
Why did it start
Combatants
Why did it end
Outcomes
In 1899, British attempts to control the region’s rich gold and diamond mines contributed to the outbreak of the conflict.
War broke out between British South Africa and the Boer Republics (made up of Afrikaner descendants of the original Dutch-speaking settlers of the region)
Boer resistance collapsed when the British began putting Boer civilians into concentration camps where thousands died.
The British emerged victorious in 1902, and the republics were eventually consolidated into the Union of South Africa.
CAROLINGIAN?
The Frankish king Charlemagne, the second king of the Carolingian Empire, was the most powerful. He allied the Empire with the Church and was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor in 800. Charlemagne successfully defended his empire from attacks by the Vikings, Muslims, and various barbarians.
TRANSITION METALS
Period 4
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
21 Scandium 22 Titanium 23 Vandium 24 Chromium 25 Manganese 26 Iron 27 Cobalt 28 Nickel 29 Copper 30 Zinc
TRANSITION METALS
Period 5
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
39 Yttrium 40 Zirconium 41 Niobium 42 Molybdenum 43 Technetium 44 Ruthenium 45 Rhodium 46 Palladium 47 Silver 48 Cadmium
TRANSITION METALS
Period 6
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
57 Lanthanum? 72 Hafnium 73 Tantalum 74 Tungsten 75 Rhenium 76 Osmium 77 Iridium 78 Platinum 79 Gold 80 Mercury
TRANSITION METALS
Period 7
104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
89 Actinium? 104 Rutherfordium 105 Dubnium 106 Seaborgium 107 Bohrium 108 Hassium 109 Meitnerium 110 Darmstadtium 111 Roentgenium 112 Copernicium
TRANSITION METALS
Period 4
21 Scandium 22 Titanium 23 Vandium 24 Chromium 25 Manganese 26 Iron 27 Cobalt 28 Nickel 29 Copper 30 Zinc
TRANSITION METALS
Period 5
39 Yttrium 40 Zirconium 41 Niobium 42 Molybdenum 43 Technetium 44 Ruthenium 45 Rhodium 46 Palladium 47 Silver 48 Cadmium
TRANSITION METALS
Period 7
89 Actinium? 104 Rutherfordium 105 Dubnium 106 Seaborgium 107 Bohrium 108 Hassium 109 Meitnerium 110 Darmstadtium 111 Roentgenium 112 Copernicium
TRANSITION METALS
Period 6
57 Lanthanum? 72 Hafnium 73 Tantalum 74 Tungsten 75 Rhenium 76 Osmium 77 Iridium 78 Platinum 79 Gold 80 Mercury
AUGUSTO PINOCHET
Country
Date took power
Old regime - new regime
1973: With the assistance of the United States, Pinochet seized power in Chile, deposing the country’s democratically elected Marxist government. Pinochet was strongly right-wing and kept power through control of Chile’s military, which he maintained until the late 20th century.
THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
Dates built
Location
The Great Wall of China
The wall is actually a collection of smaller walls that were built to protect the Chinese border and have been joined over time, the oldest of which was built around the 7th century B.C. Today, the wall spans a distance of 5,500 miles.
Needs a map!
STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
Date
Psychologist
Length
Outcomes
This experiment demonstrated the effects of taking on the role of prisoner or prison guard. It was conducted in 1971 by Philip Zimbardo. Students took on mock roles and their behavior was observed.
Even though the two groups of peers were equals in the real world, the mock prison guards began behaving very harshly toward the “prisoners”, and the prisoners became submissive to the guards. The controversial experiment only lasted six days but was pivotal in illustrating how quickly one’s personality can change depending on power or social status.
CARDS TO DISTRIBUTE
CLEANUP ALMOST EVERY CARD
Much more specificity in questions
Normans- map
MINGOLS- MONGOLS
MONGOLS CARDS - specify questions
Magellan CIRCUMNAVIGATION
1 degree equals what? (In TIME?)
1 degree (OF LONGITUDE) equals?
H2 - what’s the question?!?
GALILEO
List of Inventions
List of Publications
List of Life events
Also Pendulum Terminology
Copy pasta
COMPARE P.L.O. - HAMAS - HEZBOLLAH
Countries
Dates
Religion and Motives
Bbbb
JUDAISM
Date of Migration to Egypt
Judaism was practiced by the Hebrews, a nomadic tribe that migrated to Egypt sometime around 1700 B.C.
JUDAISM
Exodus - Date
The Exodus refers to the flight of the Hebrews out of Egypt around 1400 B.C. According to Jewish religious teaching, the Hebrews were led by Moses, under the guidance of a single god, YHWH (Hebrew for “God”). YHWH gave Moses laws to govern the Hebrews, including the Ten Commandments.
JUDAISM
Establishment of Israel
1000 BCE
Israel, in Palestine
David and Solomon were Israel’s most powerful kings and extended the kingdom’s boundaries to their greatest extent.
JUDAISM
Split of the Kingdom of Israel
Conquered by
Name of the southern Kingdom
Dates conquered
After the kingdom split into two halves, the Northern Kingdom was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 B.C., and the Southern Kingdom by the Neo-Babylonians in 587 B.C. The inhabitants of the Southern Kingdom, known as Judea, were exiled to Babylonia.
The name “Jews” comes from the name of Judea.
THE VEDAS
Dates
Locations
Peoples
Concepts
Vedas are four religious texts brought into India by the Aryans around 1500 B.C. The oldest and most widely known Veda is the Rig Veda, which described a polytheistic pantheon of gods and the concepts of reincarnation and karma.
Vedism would later give rise to Hinduism.
HINDUISM
Date
Antecedent
Hinduism emerged in India from Vedism beginning around 600 B.C
Byzantine Emperor
attempted to Reconquer Western Rome
Dates
Outcomes
530 CE
Justinian, with the aid of his able general Belisarius, attempted to re-conquer the lands lost to the barbarians. Justinian’s forces re-conquered North Africa by defeating the Vandals, and Spain, by defeating the Ostrogoths. Byzantine forces even took back parts of Italy, but were forced to retreat when a plague wiped out most of Justinian’s troops.
Procopius, an historian in Justinian’s court, claimed that Justinian had a habit of removing his own head and carrying it around under his arm. Modern-day historians question Procopius’s account.
FIRST CRUSADE
Real reason
Date
Emperor
Byzantine forces had suffered significant military reverses for centuries, as Muslim forces conquered much of the Middle East, and Seljuk Turks pressed the Empire from the Central Asian steppes.
In desperation to save his Empire, Alexius called for assistance from the Christian states of Europe in 1095, resulting in the Crusades.
ROYAL ROAD
Empire
Dates
Beginning and Ending
Length
Time to travel
Significance
The Royal Road was a 1,600-mile road that connected the Persian administrative capital Susa with Sardis, a Greek port. Although it would take an average traveler three months to travel the road, Persian riders could often make the trip in a week.
The Royal Road helped to cement the Persian Empire together in the 500s B.C., as well as to provide for the spread of a common language, Aramaic.
BUDDHISM
Founder Name and Dates
Siddhartha Gautama, (Chi-DAR-teh GWA-teh-mah) who lived from around 560 B.C. to 480 B.C., is better known by the name of Buddha.
A nobleman from India’s north, Buddha abandoned his privileged background in a quest to discover why suffering existed. After being enlightened (Buddha means “enlightened one”) while sitting under a tree, Buddha established the basic tenets of Buddhism. Importantly, Buddha never claimed to have achieved divine status.
BUDDHISM
Country and Emperor to adopt Budhism
Ashoka
330 BCE
India
SIR FRANCIS BACON
Dates
Significance
Francis Bacon popularized the Scientific Method in the early 1600s. The Scientific Method is based on inductive (rather than deductive) reasoning. A hypothesis is generated based on direct observation of a phenomena, and then the hypothesis is tested with further experiments.
Bacon advocated empiricism, a theory that asserted that knowledge came from sensory experience.
MUSLIM FIRST WARS OF CONQUEST
First Caliph
Countries conquered by 661
Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, served as the first Caliph (leader of the Umma).
After Muhammad’s death in 632, Abu Bakr and his successors led the Muslims in wars of religious conquest; by 661, Muslim forces had conquered Egypt, the Middle East, and Persia, destroying the Sassanid Empire.
RASHIDUN CALIPHATE
Dates
Order in the Caliphates
Capital
Accomplishments
632–661
Medina
Rapid Military Expansion
The Rashidun Caliphate was the first of the four major caliphates established after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad.
By the 650s, the caliphate in addition to the Arabian Peninsula had subjugated the Levant, to the Transcaucasus in the north; North Africa from Egypt to present-day Tunisia in the west; and the Iranian plateau to parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the east.
Shia Muslims do not consider the rule of the first three caliphs as legitimate.
ISLAM
Sunnis vs Shiites
First Rift
Date
Names
Outcome
In 656, two factions were competing for the title of Caliph. The Sunnis believed that Abu Bakr was rightfully named Caliph, that the Caliph should be chosen by believers, and that the Umayyad family were his rightful successors. The Shiites believed that Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, was his rightful successor and that the Caliph was determined by descent from Muhammad.
Most Muslims were (and are) Sunnis, although approximately 20% are Shiites. Although the Sunnis were triumphant and established the Umayyad Caliphate, the rift continues to this day.
UMAYYAD CALIPHATE
Dates
Order in the Caliphates
Capital
661-750
Damascus
The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. Official Umayyad rule was established by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Syria, after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in AD 661. Syria remained the Umayyads’ main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital.
ABBASID CALIPHATE
Dates
Order in the Caliphates
Capital
Accomplishments
750-1258 CE: Baghdad
1261-1517 CE: Cairo (Mamluk Sultanate)
Known for learning
The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from Muhammad’s uncle from whom the dynasty takes its name. They ruled as caliphs for most of their period from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after assuming authority over the Muslim empire from the Umayyads in 750 CE.
OTTOMAN CALIPHATE
Dates
Order in the Caliphates
Capital
1517-1924
Constantinople
The fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate, was established after their conquest of Mamluk Egypt in 1517. The conquest gave the Ottomans control over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, previously controlled by the Mamluks. The Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the de facto leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. Following their defeat in World War I, their empire was partitioned by Britain and France, and on 3 March 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate.
UNIQUE ARCHITECTURE CATHEDRAL IN MOSCOW
Name
Dates
St. Basil’s Cathedral
Constructed in Moscow, Russia between 1555–61 A.D., this cathedral is known for its unique architecture.
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UNIQUE ARCHITECTURE CATHEDRAL IN BARCELONA
Name
Dates
Sagrada Familia
1880(?)-2028(?)
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DAOISM
Dates
Founder
Lao-Tse, a wandering scholar who lived in China in the 600s B.C., gave birth to Daoism.
While Lao-Tse acknowledged the existence of the Dao, he suggested that the Rules of Propriety were not a guide to achieve virtue. Instead, virtue could be achieved by accepting and living in harmony with nature.
CONFUCIUS
Dates
Who was he
What form are his writings
Effect on China
Confucianism arose from the thoughts of Confucius (551 B.C. to 479 B.C.), a Chinese government official who’d retired and began contemplating the relationship between society and individuals.
Confucius’ conversations, known as the Analects, were compiled long after his death and are conversations between himself and his students. Confucianism would become the dominant religion in China.
In Confucianism, the Dao is the path upon which one travels to learn virtue. The concept of Dao was of especial importance to Chinese government and the development of a meritocracy; those fit by acquisition of learning and virtue merited higher positions in the government and entitled one to authority and respect.
EASTERN AND WESTERN CHRISTIANITY SPLIT
Date
AKA
Reasons
New Churches known as
The Great Schism occurred in 1054 A.D., when Christianity split into Eastern and Western halves, ostensibly over religious doctrine such as the use of icons and the Pope’s temporal powers.
The Eastern half became known as the Orthodox Church and was based in Constantinople, while the Western Roman-based half became the Catholic Church.
ZOROASTRIANISM
Dates
Empire
The Avesta is the primary scripture of Zoroastrianism, a religion that arose in Iran around 1000 B.C., and was formalized around 600 B.C.
Zoroastrianism was adopted by the Persians during the reign of Darius the Great. Zoroastrianism’s description of the earth as a battleground between good and evil appealed to the Persians, who, of course, saw themselves on the side of the good.
ISLAM
Spread to Sub-Saharan Africa
Dates
How did it spread
900s CE
In the east, Islam was spread by traders arriving from the Middle East by ship or by caravan route through the Sahara.
In the west, Berber traders in Morocco were early converts to Islam. As their trading empire extended southward, Islam went with it. One of the early states to convert was Ghana, which was along Africa’s western coast.
TIMBUKTU
1300s
MALI
Timbuktu was the chief commercial center of Mali, where merchants from the Arab states of the north gathered to trade gold, slaves, ivory, and most importantly salt, gathered from throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.
Mansa Musa, Mali’s most successful ruler, earned a reputation as one of the world’s wealthiest monarchs, in part because of the vast amounts of wealth gathered at Timbuktu.
GREAT ZIMBABWE
Dates
Known for
1250 CE
Great Zimbabwe, a city of 20,000 people based along the Zambezi River, owed much of its success to the gold trade. Zimbabwe’s gold was shipped east, where it entered the Indian ocean trade system.
STEAM ENGINE
Date
Inventor
Country
In 1769, James Watt patented an improved steam engine, which replaced the rivers and streams which had served as the main power source for British textile factories.
British textile production, no longer hampered by the speed of water, skyrocketed to 2 billion yards of cotton fiber per year in the 1850s. In addition to textile manufacturing, the steam engine had all sorts of other applications ranging from mining to shipping.
WHY WOULD THE FALL OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE SPARK WWII?
The Eastern Question was a geopolitical challenge facing the European nations. Beginning in the 1700s and continuing through 1922, the Ottoman Empire suffered through a series of internal and external crises and threatened to fall apart at any moment.
While weak, the Ottoman Empire was also predictable and ruled over potentially volatile areas such as the Middle East and North Africa, and the Empire’s continued existence kept these areas in check. Further, if any nation were to seize large swaths of Ottoman territory, it could upset the delicate European balance of power. The Eastern Question was thus primarily concerned with how to manage the Ottoman Empire’s decline.
BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY
vs
INDIA
Which Empire
When defeated
Whose Directorship
Under the directorship of Sir Robert Clive, the Company engaged in a war against the Mughal Empire, defeating it from 1757-1773 and wresting extensive concessions.
in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, Bengal surrendered.
in 1773, when the Company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance.
Until 1857, the British ruled India indirectly through the semi-private British East India Company.
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
Dates
Outcome
On both land and sea, Japan resoundingly defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, enabling Japan to claim Russia’s province of Manchuria.
In addition to tactical victory, Japanese success was a moral victory as well, establishing Japan’s position as one of the world’s great powers and marking the first time in the modern era that a European power was defeated by an Asian one.
CHARLES DARWIN
Publication
Date
In his 1859 work, On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin posited the theory of evolution. Darwin’s basic idea was that plant and animal life had evolved from earlier, simpler organisms, a process driven by what Darwin termed “natural selection.”
Darwin’s theory of natural selection contended that some species were able to prosper because they were more fitted to endure in their environment, a process known as “survival of the fittest.”
DIESEL ENGINE
Date
Inventor
Country
1896
Rudolph Diesel
Germany
STEAM ENGINE
Inventor
Date
n 1781 Scottish engineer James Watt patented a steam engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watt’s ten-horsepower engines enabled a wide range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained.
By 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, allowing factories to locate where water power was unavailable.
Reciprocating piston type steam engines remained the dominant source of power until the early 20th century
WWII - RUSSIAN CASUALTIES
Under Stalin
During WWII
Soviet casualties, both civil and military, were the largest of any nation. Some 25 million Russian soldiers were killed, wounded, or listed as missing in the War, comparable only to Stalin’s wholesale slaughter of 43 million Russians in the 1930s, ’40s, and ’50s.
WWII
Turning Point in Russia
Date
Location
In a battle that raged from June 1942 to February 1943, Soviet forces surrounded the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad, forcing its surrender. Steadily, and with millions of casualties, the Soviets began pushing the Germans back toward Germany.
WWII - D-DAY
Date
Location
On June 6, 1944, the long-awaited invasion of Europe from the West began with the D-Day landings in Normandy, France.
By the end of the year, France had been liberated. By May 1945, Allied armies were approaching Berlin from the east and west. Hitler committed suicide and Germany sued for peace.
D-Day: The Invasion of Normandy
On June 6, 1944 the Allied Forces of Britain, America, Canada, and France attacked German forces on the coast of Normandy, France. With a huge force of over 150,000 soldiers, the Allies attacked and gained a victory that became the turning point for World War II in Europe. This famous battle is sometimes called D-Day or the Invasion of Normandy.
Invasion of Normandy landing
US troops landing during the Invasion of Normandy
by Robert F. Sargent
Leading up to the Battle
Germany had invaded France and was trying to take over all of Europe including Britain. However, Britain and the United States had managed to slow down the expanding German forces. They were now able to turn on the offensive.
To prepare for the invasion, the Allies amassed troops and equipment in Britain. They also increased the number of air strikes and bombings in German territory. Right before the invasion, over 1000 bombers a day were hitting German targets. They bombed railroads, bridges, airfields, and other strategic places in order to slow down and hinder the German army.
Deception
The Germans knew that an invasion was coming. They could tell by all the forces that were gathering in Britain as well as by the additional air strikes. What they didn’t know was where the Allies would strike. In order to confuse the Germans, the Allies tried to make it look like they were going to attack north of Normandy at Pas de Calais.
The Weather
Although the D-Day invasion had been planned for months, it was almost cancelled due to bad weather. General Eisenhower finally agreed to attack despite the overcast skies. Although the weather did have some affect and on the Allies ability to attack, it also caused the Germans to think that no attack was coming. They were less prepared as a result.
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The Invasion
The first wave of the attack began with the paratroopers. These were men who jumped out of planes using parachutes. They jumped at night in the pitch dark and landed behind enemy lines. Their job was to destroy key targets and capture bridges in order for the main invasion force to land on the beach. Thousands of dummies were also dropped in order to draw fire and confuse the enemy.
In the next stage of the battle thousands of planes dropped bombs on German defenses. Soon after, warships began to bomb the beaches from the water. While the bombing was going on, underground members of the French Resistance sabotaged the Germans by cutting telephone lines and destroying railroads.
Soon the main invasion force of over 6,000 ships carrying troops, weapons, tanks, and equipment approached the beaches of Normandy.
Omaha and Utah Beaches
American troops landed at Omaha and Utah beaches. The Utah landing was successful, but the fighting at Omaha beach was fierce. Many US soldiers lost their lives at Omaha, but they were finally able to take the beach.
Forces coming to shore at Normandy
Troops and supplies coming to shore at Normandy
Source: US Coast Guard
After the Battle
By the end of D-Day over 150,000 troops had landed in Normandy. They pushed their way inland allowing more troops to land over the next several days. By June 17th over half a million Allied troops had arrived and they began to push the Germans out of France.
The Generals
The Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces was Dwight D. Eisenhower of the United States. Other Allied generals included Omar Bradley from the United States as well as Bernard Montgomery and Trafford Leigh-Mallory from Britain. The Germans were led by Erwin Rommel and Gerd von Rundstedt.
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Interesting Facts about D-Day
The troops needed the light of a full moon to see to attack. For this reason there were only a few days during a month when the Allies could attack. This led Eisenhower to go ahead with the invasion despite the bad weather.
The Allies wanted to attack during high tide as this helped the ships to avoid obstacles put in the water by the Germans.
Although June 6 is often called D-Day, D-Day is also a generic military term that stands for the day, D, of any major attack.
The overall military operation was called “Operation Overlord”. The actual landings at Normandy were called “Operation Neptune
WWII - PEARL HARBOR
Date
Purpose
Outcome
The surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which took place on December 7, 1941 (as did attacks on other U.S. bases). Japan’s intent was to destroy America’s three Pacific aircraft carriers, crippling the U.S. Navy, so it could continue its war in China. Oil, rubber, and other war materials were essential to Japan’s continued conquest. To gain these materials, the Japanese decided to strike at the Dutch East Indies (where such materials were in abundance).
The U.S. would likely declare war on Japan in the event of an attack on Dutch territory, so Japan resolved upon a quick strike against U.S. forces in an effort to achieve a rapid victory.
Fortunately, all the American carriers were at sea and not present at the attack. Twelve hundred Americans lost their lives. On January 8, 1941, President Roosevelt asked for a declaration of war against Japan. One week later, Italy and Germany declared war against the United States.
WWII - BATTLE OF THE BULGE
Date
Location
During the last week of December 1944, the Germans launched their last major offensive of the War in the Ardennes Forest, known as the Battle of the Bulge.
The battle earned the nickname “Bulge” from the large salient the Germans created in the Allied line. By early January, the offensive was contained and that month the Western Allies crossed the Rhine River into Germany.
World War II
Battle of the Bulge
The Battle of the Bulge was a major battle in Europe during World War II. It was Germany’s final attempt to drive the Allies off of mainland Europe. Most of the troops involved on the Allied side were American troops. It is considered one of the greatest battles ever fought by the United States military.
Battle of the Bulge soldiers
101st Airborne troops move out of Bastogne
Source: US Army
When was it fought?
After the Allies had freed France and defeated Germany at Normandy, many thought that World War II in Europe was coming to an end. However, Adolf Hitler of Germany had different ideas. Early in the morning on December 16, 1944 Germany launched a major attack. The battle lasted for around one month as American forces fought back and kept Germany’s army from overrunning Europe.
What’s with the funny name?
The Battle of the Bulge actually took place in the Ardennes Forest of Belgium. When the Germans attacked, they pushed back the center of the Allied forces’ line. If you were to look at a map of the Allied army front, there would have been a bulge where the Germans attacked.
What happened?
When Germany attacked they used over 200,000 troops and nearly 1,000 tanks to break through the US lines. It was winter and the weather was snowy and cold. The Americans were not ready for the attack. The Germans broke through the line and killed thousands of American troops. They tried to advance quickly.
WW2 Soldiers in the snow
Soldiers had to deal with snow and bad weather
Photo by Braun
The Germans had a good plan. They also had English speaking German spies drop in behind the Allied lines. These Germans were dressed in American uniforms and told lies to try and confuse the Americans so they wouldn’t know what was going on.
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American Heroes
Despite the quick advance and the overwhelming forces of the Germans, many American soldiers held their ground. They did not want Hitler to take over again. The Battle of the Bulge is famous for all the small pockets of American soldiers who attacked and harassed the Germans as they tried to advance.
One of the famous small fights that occurred was at Bastogne, Belgium. This city was at a key crossroads. The US troops of the 101st Airborne Division and the 10th Armored division were surrounded by Germans. They were ordered to surrender or die. US General Anthony McAuliffe didn’t want to give up, so he replied to the Germans “Nuts!” Then his soldiers managed to hold out until more US troops could arrive.
Battle of the bulge soldiers in white
Soldiers in white for camouflage
Source: US Army
It was small groups of American troops throughout the front who dug in and held out until reinforcements could come that won the battle for the Allies. Their courage and fierce fighting won the battle and sealed the fate of Hitler and the Nazi’s in World War II.
Interesting Facts about the Battle of the Bulge
The Prime Minister of Britain, Winston Churchill, said “This is undoubtedly the greatest American battle of the war….”
One of the main reasons the Germans lost the battle was they did not have enough fuel for their tanks. American troops and bombers destroyed all the fuel depots they could and eventually the German tanks ran out of fuel.
Over 600,000 American troops fought in the Battle of the Bulge. There were 89,000 US casualties including 19,000 who died.
General George Patton’s 3rd Army was able to reinforce the lines within a few days of the initial attack
WWII - BATTLE OF THE CORAL SEA
Date
Location
Significance
During the Battle of the Coral Sea, the U.S. Navy sunk one Japanese aircraft carrier and heavily damaged another, forcing a Japanese invasion fleet headed for Australia to turn back.
WWII - THE BATTLE OF MIDWAY
Date
Location
Significance
In June 1942, in a resounding U.S. victory during the Battle of Midway, American forces sunk four Japanese carriers. After its losses at Midway, the Japanese were unable to keep pace with American shipbuilding and pilot training.
Midway is an island located in the middle of the Pacific Ocean about half way between Asia and North America (hence the name “Midway”). It lies around 2,500 miles from Japan. Because of its location, Midway was considered an important strategic island for Japan in the war.
The Doolittle Raid
On April 18, 1942, the United States launched its first attack on the Japanese home islands. This raid caused the Japanese to want to push back the American presence in the Pacific Ocean. They decided to attack the American base at Midway Island.
How did the battle begin?
The Japanese formulated a plan to sneak up on the U.S. forces. They hoped to trap a number of the U.S. aircraft carriers in a bad situation where they could destroy them. However, American code breakers had intercepted a number of Japanese transmissions. The Americans knew the Japanese plans and prepared their own trap for the Japanese.
Who were the commanders in the battle?
The Japanese were led by Admiral Yamamoto. He was the same leader who planned the attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States was led by Admirals Chester Nimitz, Frank Jack Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance.
The Japanese Attack
On June 4, 1942, the Japanese launched a number of fighter planes and bombers from four aircraft carriers to attack the island of Midway. Meanwhile, three United States aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown) were closing in on the Japanese force.
A Surprise Response
While the Japanese were focused on attacking Midway, the U.S. carriers launched an attack. The first wave of planes were torpedo bombers. These planes would fly in low and try to drop torpedoes that would strike the side of the ships to sink them. The Japanese were able to fend off the torpedo attacks. Most of the U.S. torpedo attack planes were shot down and none of the torpedoes hit their target.
However, while the Japanese guns were aimed low at the torpedo bombers, American dive bombers dove in and attacked from high up in the sky. These bombs hit their target and three of the four Japanese aircraft carriers were sunk.
The Yorktown Sinks
The Yorktown then engaged in battle with the final Japanese carrier, the Hiryu. Both carriers were able to launch a number of bombers against the other. In the end, both the Yorktown and the Hiryu were sunk.
Results of the Battle
The loss of four aircraft carriers was devastating to the Japanese. They also lost a number of other ships, 248 aircraft, and over 3,000 sailors. This battle was the turning point in the war and the first major victory for the Allies in the Pacific.
WWII - PACIFIC NAVAL BATTLES
The Battle of the Coral Sea
The Battle of Midway
WWII - U-BOATS
This was short for “Unterseeboot”, which meant “undersea boat.” The Germans quickly ramped up manufacture of their U-boats and had hundreds of submarines patrolling the Atlantic Ocean by 1943.
AKKADIAN EMPIRE
Ancient Mesopotamia
The Akkadian Empire
History»_space; Ancient Mesopotamia
The first Empire to rule all of Mesopotamia was the Akkadian Empire. It lasted for around 200 years from 2300 BC to 2100 BC.
How it Began
The Akkadians lived in northern Mesopotamia while the Sumerians lived in the south. They had a similar government and culture as the Sumerians, but spoke a different language. The government was made up of individual city-states. This was where each city had its own ruler that controlled the city and the surrounding area. Initially these city-states were not united and often warred with each other.
Over time, the Akkadian rulers began to see the advantage of uniting many of their cities under a single nation. They began to form alliances and work together. Sargon the Great of Akkadia Sargon of Akkad from the Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities
Sargon the Great
Around 2300 BC Sargon the Great rose to power. He established his own city named Akkad. When the powerful Sumerian city of Uruk attacked his city, he fought back and eventually conquered Uruk. He then went on to conquer all of the Sumerian city-states and united northern and southern Mesopotamia under a single ruler.
The Empire Expands
Over the next two hundred years, the Akkadian Empire continued to expand. They attacked and conquered the Elamites to the east. They moved south to Oman. They even went as far west as the Mediterranean Sea and Syria.
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Naram-Sin
One of the great kings of Akkad was Naram-Sin. He was the grandson of Sargon the Great. Naram-Sin ruled for over 50 years. He crushed revolts and expanded the empire. His reign is considered the peak of the Akkadian Empire.
Fall of the Empire
In 2100 BC the Sumerian city of Ur rose back into power conquering the city of Akkad. The Empire was now ruled by a Sumerian king, but was still united. The empire grew weaker, however, and was eventually conquered by the Amorites in around 2000 BC.
Interesting Facts About the Akkadians
Many people in Mesopotamia at the time spoke two languages, Akkadian and Sumerian.
There were many good roads built between the major cities. They even developed an official postal service.
The Sumerians believed that the Akkadian Empire collapsed because of a curse placed on them when Naram-Sin conquered the city of Nippur and destroyed the temple.
The kings maintained power by installing their sons as governors over the major cities. They also made their daughters high priestesses over the major gods.
Sargon installed the first dynasty. He came up with the idea that a man’s sons should inherit his kingdom
BABYLONIA
The Babylonian Empire
History»_space; Ancient Mesopotamia
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, two new empires rose to power. They were the Babylonians in the south and the Assyrians to the north. The Babylonians were the first to form an empire that would encompass all of Mesopotamia.
Rebuilt city of Babylon
The Rebuilt city of Babylon today from the US Navy
Rise of the Babylonians and King Hammurabi
The city of Babylon had been a city-state in Mesopotamia for many years. After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, the city was taken over and settled by the Amorites. The city began its rise to power in 1792 BC when King Hammurabi took the throne. He was a powerful and capable leader who wanted to rule more than just the city of Babylon.
Not long after becoming King, Hammurabi began to conquer other city-states in the area. Within a few years, Hammurabi had conquered all of Mesopotamia including much of the Assyrian lands to the north.
The City of Babylon
Under Hammurabi’s rule, the city of Babylon became the most powerful city in the world. Located on the banks of the Euphrates River, the city was a major trade hub bringing together new ideas and products. Babylon also became the largest city in the world at the time with as many as 200,000 people living there at its peak.
At the center of the city was a large temple called a ziggurat. This temple looked something like a pyramid with a flat top and archeologists think that it was 300 feet tall! There was a wide street leading from the gates to the center of the city. The city was also famous for its gardens, palaces, towers, and artwork. It would have been an amazing sight to see.
The city was also the cultural center of the empire. It was here that art, science, music, mathematics, astronomy, and literature were able to flourish.
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Hammurabi’s Code
King Hammurabi established firm laws called Hammurabi’s Code. This was the first time in history that the law was written down. It was recorded on clay tablets and tall pillars of stones called steles.
Pillar with Hammurabi’s Code
Top of a pillar with some of the code inscribed by Unknown
Hammurabi’s code consisted of 282 laws. Many of them were quite specific, but were meant as guidelines to be used in similar circumstances. There were laws governing commerce such as wages, trade, rental rates, and the sale of slaves. There were laws governing criminal behavior describing the penalties for stealing or damaging property. There were even laws governing adoption, marriage, and divorce.
Fall of Babylon
After Hammurabi died, his sons took over. However, they were not strong leaders and soon Babylon grew weak. In 1595 the Kassites conquered Babylon. They would rule for 400 years. Later, the Assyrians would take over. It wasn’t until 612 BC that Babylonia once again rose to power as the ruler of the empire over Mesopotamia. This second Babylonian Empire is called the neo-Babylonian Empire.
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Around 616 BC King Nabopolassar took advantage of the fall of the Assyrian Empire to bring the seat of the empire back to Babylon. It was his son Nebuchadnezzar II who led Babylon back to its former glory.
Nebuchadnezzar II ruled for 43 years. He was a great military leader and expanded the empire to include much of the Middle East all the way to the Mediterranean Sea. This included the conquering of the Hebrews and taking them into slavery for 70 years as told in the Bible. Under Nebuchadnezzar’s rule, the city of Babylon and its temples were restored. It also became the cultural center of the world, just like during Hammurabi’s rule.
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Nebuchadnezzar II built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. This was a large series of terraces that rose to around 75 feet high. They were covered with all sorts of trees, flowers, and plants. The gardens is considered one of the great wonders of the ancient world.
Painting of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
by Maarten van Heemskerck
Fall of Neo-Babylonia
After Nebuchadnezzar II died, the empire began to fall apart once again. In 529 BC, the Persians conquered Babylon and made it part of the Persian Empire.
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Fun Facts About the Babylonians
Nebuchadnezzar had a moat built around the city of Babylon for defense. That must have been quite a sight in the desert!
All that remains of the city of Babylon is a mound of broken mud buildings about 55 miles south of Baghdad, Iraq.
Alexander the Great captured Babylon as part of his conquests. He was staying in the city when he got sick and died.
The city has been rebuilt or reconstructed in Iraq. The actual ruins and artifacts are likely buried under the reconstruction.
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE
The Assyrian Empire
History»_space; Ancient Mesopotamia
The Assyrians were one of the major peoples to live in Mesopotamia during ancient times. They lived in northern Mesopotamia near the start of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Assyrian Empire rose and fell several times throughout history.
Map of the Assyrian Empire
Map of the growth of the neo-Assyrian Empire by Ningyou
Click to see larger version
The First Rise
The Assyrians first rose to power when the Akkadian Empire fell. The Babylonians had control of southern Mesopotamia and the Assyrians had the north. One of their strongest leaders during this time was King Shamshi-Adad. Under Shamshi-Adad the empire expanded to control much of the north and the Assyrians grew wealthy. However, after Shamshi-Adad’s death in 1781 BC, the Assyrians grew weak and soon fell under control of the Babylonian Empire.
Second Rise
The Assyrians once again rose to power from 1360 BC to 1074 BC. This time they conquered all of Mesopotamia and expanded the empire to include much of the Middle East including Egypt, Babylonia, Israel, and Cypress. They reached their peak under the rule of King Tiglath-Pileser I.
The neo-Assyrian Empire
The final, and perhaps strongest, of the Assyrian Empires ruled from 744 BC to 612 BC. During this time Assyria had a string of powerful and capable rulers such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, and Ashurbanipal. These leaders built the empire into one of the most powerful empires in the world. They conquered much of the Middle East and Egypt. Once again, it was the Babylonians who brought down the Assyrian Empire in 612 BC.
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Great Warriors
The Assyrians were perhaps most famous for their fearsome army. They were a warrior society where fighting was a part of life. It was how they survived. They were known throughout the land as cruel and ruthless warriors.
Two things that made the Assyrians great warriors were their deadly chariots and their iron weapons. They made iron weapons that were stronger than the copper or tin weapons of some of their enemies. They were also skilled with their chariots which could strike fear in the hearts of their enemies.
The Library at Nineveh
The last great Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal, constructed a great library at the city of Nineveh. He collected clay tablets from all over Mesopotamia. These included the stories of Gilgamesh, the Code of Hammurabi, and more. Much of our knowledge of the Ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia comes from the remains of this library. According to the British Museum in London, just over 30,000 tablets have been recovered. These tablets make up around 10,000 different texts.
Interesting Facts About the Assyrians
The great cities of the Assyrian Empire included Ashur, Nimrud, and Nineveh. Ashur was the capital of the original empire and also their main god.
Tiglath-Pileser III built roads throughout the empire to enable his armies and messengers to travel quickly.
The Assyrians were experts at siege warfare. They used battering rams, siege towers, and other tactics such as diverting water supplies in order to take a city.
Their cities were strong and impressive. They had huge walls built to withstand a siege, many canals and aqueducts for water, and extravagant palaces for their kings.
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