Neuroanatomy Flashcards
1
Q
rostral
A
towards the front (rostrum = beak)
2
Q
caudal
A
towards the tail
3
Q
what is the encephalon?
A
brain
4
Q
what does the CNS comprise?
A
brain and spinal cord
5
Q
what is the rhombencephalon?
A
hindbrain
6
Q
what is the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) divided into?
A
medulla oblongata
pons
cerebellum
7
Q
what is medulla oblongata derived from?
A
myelencephalon
8
Q
what is the pons derived from?
A
metencephalon
9
Q
what is the cerebellum derived from?
A
metencephalon
10
Q
what is the mesencephalon?
A
midbrain
11
Q
in which part of the brain is the tectum?
A
midbrain
12
Q
where is the tectum relative to the cerebral aqueduct in the midbrain?
A
dorsal
13
Q
which part of the midbrain comprises of four colliculi?
A
tectum
14
Q
what is the corpora quadrigemina?
A
superior and inferior colliculi
15
Q
what is the cerebral peduncle?
A
midbrain ventral to the aqueduct
16
Q
divisions of the cerebral peduncle
A
dorsal tegmentum
ventrally, a large fibre tract on each side of the midline - crus cerebri
17
Q
what separates the tegmentum and crura?
A
substantia nigra
18
Q
what are the crus cerebri?
A
large bundles of white matter emerging from the cerebral hemispheres, one on each side of the midline
pass backwards and downwards, converging to meet in the midline at the upper border of the pons
19
Q
which part of the cerebral peduncles are visible on the inferior surface of the brain?
A
crus cerebri
20
Q
what is the prosencephalon?
A
forebrain
21
Q
divisions of the prosencephalon/ forebrain
A
diencephalon and telencephalon
22
Q
divisions of the diencephalon
A
thalamus and hypothalamus
with the epi and sub-thalamus
23
Q
what does the telencephalon consist of?
A
cerebral cortex (grey matter)
deep nuclei - basal ganglia
24
Q
where are the red nuclei located?
A
ventral midbrain
25
what are the meninges?
three separate tubular sheaths of membrane which surround and enclose the ENTIRE CNS
26
name the meninges deep to superficial
PAD out
pia, arachnoid, dura
27
describe dura mater
fibrous sheet
white collagen fibres
few elastic fibres arranged in dense laminae, often of parallel fibres
latticed appearance due to wide angle between the direction of the fibres in adjacent laminae
28
does the spinal cord dura have an endosteal layer?
no, just cranial dura
29
layers of cranial dura
outer endosteal layer - equivalent to the periosteum
inner meningeal layer - dura mater proper
30
describe arachnoid mater
poorly vascularised membrane of loose connective tissue, consisting of collagen, elastin and reticulin fibres
loosely covers the brain without following the gyral and sulcal undulations
31
describe pia mater
adherent to the entire surface of the CNS, including following the gyral and sulcal folds
32
what is the subarachnoid space?
space between the arachnoid and pia mater containing cerebrospinal fluid
33
where is CSF?
in the ventricles and subarachnoid space
34
what is white matter?
formed by collections of nerve fibres (axons) wrapped in fatty myelin sheaths with few or no neuronal somata (cell bodies)
35
what is grey matter of the CNS?
formed by aggregations of neuronal cell bodies and their local processes
36
what is neuropil?
network of intermingled and interconnected neuronal processes which occupy the space between neuronal cell bodies in the grey matter
37
what are clusters of nerve cell bodies (grey matter) within the brain?
nuclei/ ganglia
e.g basal ganglia
38
what is the difference between ganglia and nuclei?
why is 'basal ganglia' a misnomer?
ganglia are clusters of nerve cell bodies in the PNS
nuclei are clusters of nerve cell bodies in the CNS
basal ganglia are in the forebrain (CNS)
39
what is the cortex?
outer surface of the brain
cerebral hemispheres AND cerebellum
formed by flatter sheets of neurones
40
what shape does the grey matter form in the spinal cord?
butterfly
41
difference in orientation of grey and white matter in the spinal cord and brain
brain
- grey matter surrounds white matter
spinal cord
- white matter surrounds grey matter
- grey matter forms a butterfly shape
42
which layer of the meninges is indistinguishable with the naked eye?
pia
43
arterial supply to the brain
Circle of Willis
44
venous drainage of the brain
cerebral veins
dural venous sinuses
45
in which lobe is the primary motor cortex?
frontal
46
in which lobe is the prefrontal cortex?
frontal
47
in which lobe are the primary auditory cortex and auditory association cortex?
temporal
48
in which lobe is Wernicke's area?
temporal
49
in which lobe is the hippocampus?
temporal
50
in which lobe is the amygdala?
temporal
51
in which lobe is the primary somatosensory cortex?
parietal
52
in which lobe is the somatosensory association cortex?
parietal
53
in which lobe is the primary visual cortex?
occipital
54
in which lobe is the visual association cortex
occipital
55
function of the cerebellum
motor control of equilibrium
posture and muscle tone and movement co-ordination
56
where are cranial nerve nuclei?
brainstem mainly
57
what are gyri?
rolls of cerebral cortex
58
what are sulci?
grooves between the gyri
59
what is the central sulcus?
large fissure separating the frontal from parietal lobes
60
what is the lateral sulcus?
large fissure separating the temporal lobe from parietal and frontal lobes
61
what are the posterior most parts of the occipital lobes called?
occipital poles
62
what is insula?
forms the floor of the lateral sulcus
63
what are opercula?
means 'lips'
the parts of the temporal, frontal and parietal lobes that overlie the insula
64
where is the median longitudinal fissure?
between the hemispheres
65
white matter connecting the hemispheres
corpus callosum
66
ion which lobe do the olfactory tracts run?
frontal
67
rounded eminences behind the optic chiasma
mamillary bodies
68
are the mamillary bodies visible from the dorsal or ventral surface of the brainstem?
ventral
69
what is the only part of the diencephalon visible on the outside of the brain?
hypothalamus
70
what are the crus cerebri?
part of the cerebral peduncles
two large masses of white matter emerging behind the mamillary bodies on each side, from the cerebral hemisphere
they converge as they meet the pons
71
bridge of neural tissue between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata
pons
72
what joins the hemispheres of the cerebellum?
vermis
73
where does the parietal lobe extend between?
central sulcus anteriorly to the imaginary parietooccipital fissure posteriorly
74
which lobe contains the primary sensory area?
parietal
75
how many of each lobe do we have?
2
76
which parietal lobe is usually dominant?
left
77
functional of the non dominant parietal lobe
visuospatial functions
78
function of the frontal lobe
motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, judgement, personality, impulse control, social and sexual behaviour
79
where is the prefrontal cortex?
anterior part of frontal lobe
80
function of the prefrontal cortex
higher cognitive functions and determination of personality
81
where is Broca's area?
left inferior frontal gyrus
82
function of Broca's area?
language production and comprehension
83
where is the primary auditory complex?
temporal lobe
84
where is the hippocampus?
temporal lobe
85
in which lobe is the amygdala?
temporal
86
where is Wernicke's area?
superior temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere
87
function of Wernicke's area
understanding the spoken word
88
where is the auditory complex found?
lateral/ Sylvian fissure
89
where are the primary visual and visual association cortices?
occipital lobe
90
function of the limbic system
emotion, memory, behaviour, olfaction
91
function of the hippocampus
long term memory formation
92
function of the amygdala
motivationally significant stimuli e.g those related to reward and fear
93
what is the brain's pleasure centre?
nucleus accumbens
94
falx cerebri
arched crescent of dura lying in the longitudinal fissure between the cerebral hemispheres
95
sinus at the superior border of the falx cerebri
superior saggital sinus
96
sinus at the free border of the falx cerebri (inferior margin)
inferior saggital sinus
97
thick, fibrous roof over the posterior cranial fossa and cerebellum
tentorium cerebelli
98
sinus within the tentorium cerebelli at its attachment to the falx cerebri (midline of the tentorium cerebelli)
straight sinus
99
horseshoe shaped space between the free concave border of the tentorium and the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid
tectorial inscisure
100
sinuses running along the line of attachment of the tentorium cerebelli to the occipital bone
transverse sinuses
101
sinus lying lateral to the body of the sphenoid
cavernous sinus
102
small, circular, horizontal fold of dura mater which forms the roof of the pituitary fossa
diaphragma sellae
103
dura separating the lobes of the cerebellum
falx cerebelli
104
compartments within the subarachnoid space where the pia mater and arachnoid membrane are not in close approximation and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) forms pools
subarachnoid cisterns
names after their positions relative to the brain
105
midline communication between the 4th ventricle and subarachnoid space
foramen of magendie
106
lateral communication between the 4th ventricle and the subarachnoid space
foramen of luschka
107
which part of the meninges forms part of the blood brain barrier?
pia mater
108
function of the blood brain barrier
limits the ability of molecules to pass between the blood and CNS for protection
109
4 features of the blood brain barrier
1. the edges of adjacent endothelial cells that line blood vessels are bonded closely together by tight junctions to prevent molecules passing between them
2. the basement membrane of CNS blood vessels lack fenestrations
3. contractile pericytes embedded in the basement membrane wrap around endothelial cells, regulating capillary blood flow, immunity and vascular permeability
4. astrocyte end feet envelop CNS capillaries and restrict the flow of molecules into the CNS parenchyma
110
meningism
triad of headache, neck stiffness and photophobia
nausea, vomiting and fever
111
meningitis
inflammation of the meninges, typically caused by infection
112
which form of meningitis is serious?
bacterial
113
extradural haemorrhage
between the skull and dura mater
114
subdural haemorrhage
between the dura and arachnoid
115
which type of haemorrhage appears as a crescent on a CT scan?
subdural
116
subarachnoid haemorrhage
blood between the arachnoid and pia mater
117
which type of haemorrhage causes a sudden, severe headache?
subarachnoid
118
bleeding within the brain tissue
intracerebral
119
amaurosis fugax
temporary loss of vision to one eye
part of a carotid plaque breaks off and occludes the central retinal artery
warning of thrombus of the internal carotid artery - potential for an impending stroke
120
where do arteries and veins on the surface of the brain lie?
within the subarachnoid space
121
which arteries supply blood to the brain?
internal carotid and vertebral arteries
122
what percentage of blood do the vertebral arteries supply to the brain?
20%
123
what percentage of blood do the internal carotid arteries supply to the brain?
80%
124
which artery supplies the posterior cerebrum and posterior cranial fossa?
vertebral
125
which artery supplies the anterior and middle cerebrum and diencephalon?
internal carotid
126
what pathology commonly affects the cerebral arteries?
berry aneurysms
127
draw and label the circle of Willis
.
128
where does the internal carotid arise?
bifurcation of the common carotid at the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage
129
which bone does the internal carotid enter?
temporal
130
where does the internal carotid divide into its terminal branches?
anterior perforated substance at the medial end of the lateral sulcus
131
what are the terminal branches of the internal carotid artery?
anterior and middle cerebral arteries
132
which artery supplies the corpus callosum and medial aspects of the hemispheres?
anterior cerebral artery
133
which is the largest terminal branch of the internal carotid?
middle cerebral artery
134
which artery supplies the lateral surface of the hemisphere and the deep structures of the anterior part of the cerebral hemisphere?
middle cerebral artery
135
what connects the two anterior cerebral arteries?
anterior communicating artery
136
what connects the internal carotid and vertebro-basilar systems?
posterior communicating artery
137
which artery supplies the occipital lobe?
posterior cerebral artery
138
which foramen does the opthalmic artery pass through?
optic canal
139
which foramen do the ethmoidal artery and vein pass through?
ethmoidal foramen
140
which foramen does the superior ophthalmic vein pass through?
superior orbital fissure
141
which foramen does the middle meningeal artery pass through?
foramen spinosum
142
which foramen does the internal jugular vein pass through?
jugular foramen
143
which foramen do the vertebral arteries pass through?
foramen magnum
144
which foramen does the labyrinthine artery pass through?
internal acoustic meatus
145
is there a functional anastomosis between the anterior and posterior circulations?
no
146
where do the vertebral arteries arise from?
subclavian artery
147
where do the vertebral arteries unite, and what do they form?
lower border of the pons
basilar artery
148
where does the basilar artery lie?
anterior median fissure on the pons
149
which vessels form the posterior circulation?
vertebral and basilar arteries and branches
posterior cerebral artery
150
what connects the anterior and posterior circulations?
circle of willis
151
where are berry aneurysms most likely to form?
anterior communicating artery which lies in the subarachnoid space
152
types of stroke
ischaemic or haemorrhagic
lasts over 24h (under = TIA)
blood supply to the brain is interrupted
153
where do cerebral veins drain into?
dural venous sinuses
154
what are internal cerebral veins?
run within the substance of the brain tissue and end when they reach the surface of the brain where they become external cerebral veins
155
what are external cerebral veins?
run on the surface of the brain, crossing the subarachnoid space to drain into the dural venous sinuses
156
which vein drains the deep structures of the brain?
great cerebral vein of Galen
157
where does the great cerebral vein (of Galen) drain into?
straight sinus
158
draw and label the dural venous sinuses
.
159
where do ALL the dural venous sinuses drain into?
internal jugular veins
160
a deep groove in the mastoid portion of the temporal bone
sigmoid sinus
161
sinus beside the body of the sphenoid bone
cavernous sinus
162
what does the cavernous sinus contain?
five cranial nerves and the internal carotid artery
carotid plexus
cranial nerves
- abducens
- oculomotor nerve
- trochlear
first and second divisions of the trigeminal
3rd, 4th, first and second divisions of the 5th, 6th
163
sinus in the groove between the petrous temporal bone and the basal part of the occipital bone
inferior petrosal sinus
164
emissary veins
allow communication between inter cranial venous sinuses and the veins outside the skull
165
consequences of venous sinus thrombosis
cerebral oedema and raised inter cranial pressure
brain damage
headaches, epileptic seizures, focal motor deficit, deterioration in consciousness
166
what are arachnoid granulations?
arachnoid granulations are pockets of arachnoid membrane and subarachnoid space which connect cerebrospinal fluid to venous circulation
167
what does the brain develop from?
hollow neural tube
168
where is most choroid plexus found?
lateral ventricles
169
what is choroid plexus and what is its function?
a network of blood vessels in each ventricle of the brain, producing the cerebrospinal fluid
170
what connects the lateral and second ventricle?
inter ventricular foramen of Munroe
171
what connects the third and fourth ventricle?
cerebral aqueduct
172
from the fourth ventricle, which foramina does CSF then travel to?
median foramen of magendie
lateral foramen of luschka
173
which cells line the ventricles?
ependymal cells
174
what constitutes the CSF-brain barrier?
the ependyma
175
which blood vessels supply the deep structures of the anterior part of the cerebral hemisphere?
anterior perforating branches
176
name the cranial fossae
anterior, middle and posterior
177
in which bone is the cribriform plate?
ethmoid
178
in which fossa is the frontal lobe contained?
anterior cranial fossa
179
which bones form the anterior cranial fossa?
frontal bone, ethmoid bone and sphenoid bone
180
what is the crista galli?
midline projection in the ethmoid bone
181
which wing of the sphenoid bone bounds the anterior cranial fossa posteriorly?
lesser
182
which lobes of the brain are contained in the middle cranial fossa?
temporal, parietal and occipital
183
list the cranial fossae in order from shallowest to deepest
anterior, middle, posterior
184
which fissure is between the greater and lesser wings of the sphenoid?
superior orbital fissure
185
in which bone is the optic canal?
sphenoid
186
which bones form the middle cranial fossa
sphenoid and two temporal bones
187
what is the sella turcica?
saddle-like bony formation on the upper surface of the body of sphenoid bone
houses the pituitary gland
also called the pituitary (hypophyseal) fossa
188
in which cranial fossa is the foramen rotundum?
middle
189
in which cranial fossa is the foramen ovale?
middle
190
in which cranial fossa is the foramen lacerum?
middle
191
in which cranial fossa is the foramen spinosum?
middle
192
what does the posterior cranial fossa contain?
cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata
193
in which cranial fossa is the foramen magnum?
posterior
194
in which cranial fossa is the hypoglossal canal?
posterior
195
in which cranial fossa is the internal acoustic meatus (internal auditory meatus)?
posterior
196
what are the holes in the cribriform plate called?
olfactory foramina
197
in which cranial fossa is the jugular foramen?
posterior cranial fossa
198
which cranial nerves pass through the jugular foramen?
CN IX, X, XI
glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory nerve
199
what passes through the jugular foramen?
CN IX, X, XI
internal jugular vein
200
what passes through the foramen magnum?
vertebral arteries
anterior and posterior spinal arteries
spinal cord
201
what passes through the internal acoustic meatus?
CN VII - facial
CN VIII - vestibulocochlear
202
what passes through the ethmoidal foramen?
CN I - olfactory
203
what passes through the optic canal?
CN II - optic
204
what passes through the superior orbital fissure?
CN III - oculomotor
CN IV - trochlea
CN VI - abducens
CN V(1) - trigeminal (ophthalmic branch)
205
what passes through the foramen rotundum?
CN V(2) - trigeminal (maxillary)
206
what passes through the foramen ovale?
CN V(3) - trigeminal (mandibular)
207
what passes through the hypoglossal canal?
CN XII - hypoglossal
208
raised intercranial pressure
caused by space occupying lesions (SOLs; tumour, haematoma, abscess) and idiopathic inter cranial hypertension
signs and symptoms
- headache
- nausea
- visual disturbance
- later, altered consciousness
- papilledema
- increased blind-spot on visual field testing
209
identify the muscles and nerves of the orbit
.
210
from which spinal segments and cranial nerves is parasympathetic outflow?
CN III - oculomotor
CN VII - facial
CN IX - glossopharyngeal
CN X - vagus
sacral spinal segments 2,3 and 4 - S2-4
211
where do parasympathetic fibres in the oculomotor nerve originate from?
Edinger-Westphal nucleus in the midbrain
212
where is the nucleus for the oculomotor nerve?
midbrain
Edinger-Westphal
213
which muscles does the oculomotor nerve innervate?
Superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, inferior oblique, levator palpebrae superioris, sphincter pupillae (parasympathetics), ciliary muscle (parasympathetics)
214
where is sympathetic outflow from the CNS?
T1-L2
the sympathetic trunk
215
which spinal segment provides sympathetic innervation to the orbit?
T1
216
which extra ocular muscles are not innervated by the oculomotor nerve?
superior oblique and lateral rectus
217
action of medial rectus
adducts the eye
218
action of lateral rectus
abducts the eye
219
action of superior rectus
elevates (primary)
intorts (secondarily)
adducts (tertiarily)
220
action of inferior rectus
depresses (primary)
extorts (secondarily)
adducts (tertiarily)
221
action of superior oblique
intorts (primary)
depresses (secondarily)
abducts (tertiarily)
222
action of inferior oblique
extorts (primary)
elevates (secondarily)
abducts (tertiarily)
223
what is intorsion of the eye?
rotating the top of the eye towards the nose
224
what is extortion of the eye?
rotating the top of the eye away from the nose
225
what is adduction of the eye?
moving the eye inwards
226
what is abduction of the eye?
moving the eye outwards
227
mnemonic to remember the actions of superior and inferior muscles of the eye
RAD SIN
rectus adducts (therefore oblique abducts)
superior intorts (inferior extorts)
228
mnemonic to explain the innervation of the extra ocular muscles
LR6 SO4
lateral rectus is innervated by abducens (CN VI)
superior oblique is innervated by trochlear (CN IV)
all other extraocular muscles are innervated by oculomotor
229
jugular foramen syndrome
compression of multiple lower cranial nerves
glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory
symptoms
- dysphonia
- loss of gag reflex
- unilateral wasting of sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
230
foramen magnum syndrome
compression of spinal cord, lower brain stem or part of cerebellum
symptoms
- pain in head, neck, limbs, trunk made worse by straining
cerebellar symptoms: vertigo, gait disturbance
decerebrate posture
cardiorespiratory failure
pyramidal signs
death
231
Arnold-Chiari malformation
congenital
displacement of the cerebellar tonsils down through the foramen magnum
sometimes blocks CSF flow causing hydrocephalus
symptoms
- headaches
- fatigue
- muscle weakness in the head and face
- impaired coordination
232
label the ear
.
233
acoustic neuroma
benign tumour of myelin sheath of the vestibulocochlear nerve
234
components of the brainstem
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
235
what is the bulbopontine sulcus?
transverse groove at the caudal border of the pons
236
what is the basilar sulcus?
shallow sulcus on the ventral aspect of the pons in which the basilar artery runs
237
function of the cerebellar peduncles
connect the cerebellum to the different parts of the brainstem
238
function of the superior cerebellar peduncles
connect the cerebellum and midbrain
239
function of the middle cerebellar peduncles
connect the cerebellum to the pons
240
function of the inferior cerebellar peduncles?
connect the cerebellum to the medulla
241
what is the anterior median fissure?
division of the medulla in the ventral midline
242
what are medullary pyramids?
elongated eminences marking the position of underlying fibres passing from the cerebral hemisphere to the cord
243
what are the types of pyramidal tracts?
corticospinal and corticobulbar
244
where do the pyramidal tracts originate?
cerebral cortex
245
where do corticospinal tracts travel between?
cerebral cortex and spinal cord
246
where do corticospinal tracts terminate?
spinal cord
247
where do the corticobulbar tracts travel between?
cerebral cortex and (cranial nerve nuclei in the) brainstem
248
what are pyramidal tracts responsible for?
motor functions
249
what is the decussation of the pyramids?
point at the junction of the medulla and spinal cord where the motor fibers from the medullary pyramids cross the midline
250
what percentage of corticospinal tracts decussate?
80%
251
what percentage of corticobulbar tracts decussate?
50%
252
where is the ventrolateral sulcus?
lateral border of the pyramid on each side
253
where are the olives, and what are they?
lateral to the ventrolateral sulcus of the medulla
caused by the presence of the underlying olivary nucleus
involves with the control of movement
254
what are the corpora quadrigemina?
superior and inferior colliculi
255
function of the superior colliculi
visual reflexes
part of the visual system
256
function of the inferior colliculi
reflex of looking towards a loud noise
part of the auditory system
257
function of the pineal gland
endocrine gland that synthesises melatonin, which modulates sleep patterns
258
what is the inferior brachium?
conveys auditory information from the medial geniculate body (nucleus) to the inferior colliculi
259
what is the superior brachium?
conveys visual information from the lateral geniculate body (nucleus) to the superior colliculi
260
can the tectum be seen on the dorsal or ventral aspect of the midbrain?
dorsal
261
can the pineal gland be seen from the dorsal or ventral aspect of the midbrain?
dorsal
262
what is the rhomboid fossa?
floor of the 4th ventricle
263
which part of the brain can the floor of the 4th ventricle be seen?
dorsal aspect of the pons
264
which nuclei are found in the pontine tegmentum?
abducens
facial
motor division of trigeminal
5th, 6th and 7th
265
where does the tegmentum extend from?
substantia nigra to cerebral aqueduct
266
what marks the midline of the medulla?
posterior median sulcus
267
what are the gracile tubercles?
round swellings either side of the midline which overlie the gracile fasciculus
268
what is the gracile fasciculus?
carries fine touch, vibration, two-point discrimination and proprioception from the lower limb
269
what are the cuneate tubercles?
swellings lateral to the gracile tubercles which overlie the cuneate fasciculus
270
what is the cuneate fasciculus?
carries fine touch, vibration, two-point discrimination and proprioception from the upper limb
271
which nuclei are found in the medullary tegmentum?
glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal
9th, 10th, 11th and 12th
272
what are the nuclei underlying the gracile and cuneate tubercles also called?
dorsal column nuclei
273
what are the dorsal column nuclei?
major relay site for the dorsal column sensory pathway
i.e DCMLS - dorsal column medial leminscal system
274
Bell's Palsy
acute unilateral inflammation of the facial nerve - lower motor neuron
if caused by herpes zoster, a vesticular rash is present in the external auditory canal and on the oropharynx
signs and symptoms
- pain behind ear
- paralysis of the facial muscles and failure to close eye
- absent corneal reflex
- hyperacusis
- loss of taste on anterior two-thirds of tongue
275
Bulbar Palsy
impairment of the functions of the cranial nerves that arise from the medulla
- glossopharyngeal
- vagus
- spinal and cranial accessory
- hypoglossal
9-12
symptoms
- dysphagia
- absent gag reflex
caused by MND
276
pseudo bulbar palsy
similar symptoms to bulbar palsy but the lesion is in the upper motor neurons e.g stroke or MS
277
central pontine myelinolysis
destruction of myelin in the pons
occurs when low sodium levels are corrrected too quickly
278
MALES mnemonic
medial geniculate body - auditory
lateral geniculate body - eyes (so visual) superior colliculus
279
which is the only cranial nerve to emerge from the dorsal aspect of the brain?
trochlear
280
which two cranial nerves emerge from the cerebrum?
CN I and CN II
281
which cranial nerve emerges from the midbrain?
trochlear
282
which cranial nerves emerge from the midbrain-pontine junction?
oculomotor
283
which cranial nerve emerges from the pons?
trigeminal
284
which cranial nerves emerges from the pontine-medulla junction?
abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear
285
which cranial nerves emerge from the medulla?
posterior to the olive: glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory
anterior to the olive: hypoglossal
286
mnemonic to remember cranial nerves
oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel very good velvet ah heaven
287
mnemonic to remember component fibres of the cranial nerves
some say money matter but my brother says big brains matter more
s = sensory
m = motor
b = both
288
which cranial nerves are parasympathetic?
1973
10th, 9th, 7th, 3rd
vagus, glossopharyngeal, facial, oculomotor
289
what does the olfactory nerve innervate?
olfactory epithelium
290
what does the optic nerve innervate?
retina
291
what does the oculomotor nerve innervate?
extraocular muscles excluding lateral rectus and superior oblique
- superior rectus
- inferior rectus
- medial rectus
- inferior oblique
- levator palpebrae superioris
sphincter pupillae and ciliary muscle of the eye
292
function of levator palpebrae superioris
elevate upper eyelid
293
how can we remember which extraocular muscles are not innervated by oculomotor?
LR6 SO4
lateral rectus = 6th cranial nerve
superior oblique = 4th cranial nerve
294
what does the trochlear nerve innervate?
superior oblique
295
what does the sensory component of the trigeminal innervate?
face, scalp, cornea, nasal and oral cavities
296
what does the motor component of the trigeminal innervate?
muscles of mastication, tensor tympani
297
name the divisions of the trigeminal in order
ophthalmic (V1)
maxillary (V2)
mandibular (V3)
oh max man
298
which division of the trigeminal is the only one to receive motor fibres?
mandibular
299
what does abducens innervate?
lateral rectus
300
what does the facial nerve innervate?
sensory, motor and parasympathetic
sensory
- anterior 2/3 of tongue
motor
- muscles of facial expression
parasympathetic
- salivary and lacrimal glands via submandibular and pterygopalatine gland
301
what does the vestibulocochlear innervate?
vestibular apparatus
cochlear
302
what does the glossopharyngeal innervate?
sensory, motor and parasympathetic
sensory
- posterior third of tongue
- pharynx
- Eustachian tube
- middle ear
motor
- stylopharyngeus muscle
parasympathetic
- parotid salivary gland
303
sensory innervation of the vagus
pharynx, larynx, trachea, oesophagus, external ear
thoracic and abdominal viscera, aortic bodies, aortic arch
304
motor innervation of the vagus
soft palate, pharynx, larynx, upper oesophagus
305
parasympathetic innervation of the vagus
thoracic and abdominal viscera
306
what does the accessory nerve innervate?
sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscle
307
what does the hypoglossal nerve innervate?
intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the tongue
308
function of the olfactory nerve
olfaction
309
function of the optic nerve
vision, pupillary light reflex
310
function of the oculomotor nerve
movement of the eyeball
elevation of the upper eyelid
pupillary constriction and accommodation
311
function of the trochlear
intorts the eye
312
function of the trigeminal nerve
general sensation of the face, scalp, cornea, nasal and oral cavities
opening and closing the mouth
313
function of abducens
ABducts the eye
ABducens ABducts
314
function of the facial nerve
taste, facial movement, salivation and lacrimation
315
function of the vestibulocochlear nerve
vestibular sensation
(position/ movement of head) hearing
316
function of the glossopharyngeal nerve
general sensation to the pharynx, posterior third of tongue, Eustacian tube, middle ear
swallowing
salivation
317
function of the vagus nerve
general sensation
visceral sensation
chemoreception
baroreceptors
speech
swallowing
innervation of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands of CVS system, respiratory and GI tracts
318
function of the accessory nerve
movement of head and shoulder
319
function of hypoglossal
movement of tongue
320
which are the only two cranial nerves to pass through canals?
cranial nerves with a 2 in them
2nd and 12th
optic nerve and hypoglossal nerve
pass through a canal of the same name
321
what passes through the cribriform plate?
olfactory nerve
322
which nerve passes through the optic canal?
optic nerve
323
which nerves pass though the superior orbital fissure?
3rd, 4th, first division of the 5th, 6th
oculomotor
trochlear
ophthalmic division of the trigeminal
abducens
these are all intuitive since they act on the eye
324
in which bone is the superior orbital fissure?
sphenoid
325
which nerve passes through the foramen rotundum?
second division of the 5th (maxillary division of the trigeminal)
CNV2
326
which nerve passes through the foramen ovale?
third division of the 5th (mandibular division of the trigeminal)
CNV3
327
which nerve passes through the internal acoustic meatus?
facial
vestibulocochlear
328
which nerve passes through the jugular foramen?
9th, 10th and 11th
glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory
329
which nerve passes through the hypoglossal canal?
hypoglossal
330
what do the fibres from the nasal portion of the retina provide information about?
temporal visual field
331
do fibres from the nasal or temporal retina cross?
nasal
332
where do fibres from the nasal retina cross?
optic chiasma/ optic chiasm
333
what do the optic nerves become after the optic chiasma?
optic tracts
334
where do the optic tracts terminate?
lateral geniculate bodies of the thalamus
but some continue medially to the midbrain (pretectal nucleus and superior colliculus) where they synapse to form the afferent limb of the visual reflexes
335
where do axons of the nerve cells from the lateral geniculate pathways pass?
posteriorly through the internal capsule to the visual cortex of the occipital lobe
336
what does the inferior portion of the retina supply information about?
superior visual field
337
which lobes do the fibres carrying information from the inferior portions of the retina (superior visual field) to the visual cortex pass through?
temporal lobe
338
which lobes do the fibres carrying information from the superior portions of the retina (inferior visual fields) pass through on the way to the visual cortex?
parietal lobe
339
what can a pituitary tumour cause and why?
bitemporal hemianopia
impaired vision in the outer temporal halves of the visual field of each eye
due to pressing on the optic chiasma
340
what are Meyer's loops?
optic tracts from the lower retina (superior visual field) passing through the temporal lobes to travel to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe
341
what will damage to the Meyer's loops cause?
upper quadrantinopia
342
what will damage to the neurons travelling from the lateral geniculate body to the occipital lobe via the parietal lobe cause?
lower quadrantinopia
343
what does a lesion of the optic tract after the optic chiasm cause?
homonymous hemianopia
vision loss on the same side of the visual field in both eyes
344
which cranial nerves pass through the cavernous sinus?
CN III, CN IV, CNV1, CNV2, CN VI
345
what ridges does the cerebellum have on the surface?
folia
346
function of the cerebellum
coordination of movement and balance
347
what joins the cerebellar hemispheres?
vermis
348
where is grey matter located in the brain?
outside
349
where is grey matter located in the spinal cord?
inside
350
cerebellar cortex
outer layer of grey matter
351
what shape do the cerebellar peduncles form?
clef
or bottom of golf stick
352
what is the red nucleus and where is it found?
circular mass of grey matter ventro-lateral to the cerebral aqueduct in the midbrain
353
what is the substantia nigra and where is it found?
black band of nerve cells overlying the crus cerebri
ventrolateral to the red nucleus on each side in the midbrain
354
which fissures does the cerebellum have?
horizontal and primary fissures
355
which lobes does the cerebellum have?
anterior and posterior
356
what divides the cerebellum into its respective lobes?
primary fissure
357
prominent rounded swellings on the cerebellar cortex anteriorly on either side of the vermis
tonsils
358
ovoid swelling lying immediately posterior to the lateral foramen of the 4th ventricle on each side
flocculus
359
what is continuous with the flocculus via a peduncle of white matter?
nodule
360
what is the flocculo-nodular lobe and its function?
flocculus and nodule together, primarily concerned with vestibular information
361
what connects the cerebellum to the medulla?
inferior cerebellar peduncle
362
what connects the cerebellum to the pons?
middle cerebellar peduncle
363
hat connects the cerebellum to the midbrain?
superior cerebellar peduncle
364
which is the largest and most lateral of the deep cerebellar nuclei?
dentate nucleus
365
where is the dentate nucleus?
in the cerebellar peduncles
366
which part of the brainstem is at the same level as the cerebellum?
pons
367
what limits the rhomboid fossa laterally?
cerebellar peduncles
368
what limits the rhomboid fossa posteriorly?
gracile and cuneate tubercles
369
what is the gracile fasciculus?
medial dorsal columns carrying touch, vibration, two-point discrimination and proprioception from the lower limb
a bundle of nerve fibres
370
what is the cuneate fasciculus?
lateral dorsal colums carrying touch, vibration, two-point discrimination and proprioception from the upper limb
a bundle of nerve fibres
371
medan sulcus
divides the rhomboid fossa into triangular left and right halves
372
area postrema
where and function
small tongue shaped area immediately rostro-lateral to the obex
nausea control
373
label the brainstem and floor of the 4th ventricle
rhomboid fossa
gracile tubercles
cuneate tubercles
median sulcus
median sulcus
facial colliculus
medullary striae
locus coeruleus
hypoglossal trigone
vagal trigone
vestibular trigone
obex
area postrema
374
what is the facial colliculus?
rounded swelling caused by the fibres of the facial nerve in the substance of the pons curving around the nucleus of the abducens nerve at the level of the superior fovea
375
what is the hypoglossal trigone
medial triangular area overlying the hypoglossal nerve nucleus
376
what is the vagal trigone?
intermediate triangular area overlying the vagus nerve nucleus
377
what is the vestibular trigone?
lateral triangular area overlying the vestibulocochlear nerve nucleus
378
what is the obex?
inferior apex of the rhomboid fossa
379
what is the paracentral lobule, and what does it represent?
U shaped gyrus surrounding the medial extension of the central sulcus which contains the representations of the lower limb within the primary motor and somatic sensory areas of the cortex, which on the lateral surface, occupy the pre-central and post-central gyri respectively
380
what is the cingulate gyrus?
gyrus wrapping around the corpus callosum
381
what is the cingulate sulcus?
separates the cingulate gyrus from the rest of the hemisphere
382
on which aspect of the hemisphere can the parieto-occipital sulcus mainly be seen?
medial
forms a Y shaped arrangement with the calcarine sulcus
383
the primary visual cortex lies in the walls of which sulcus?
calcarine
384
is the grey matter thicker in the primary motor or primary somatosensory cortex?
thicker in the primary motor cortex
385
in the homunculus, are the legs and feet represented medially or laterally?
medially
386
in the homunculus, is the face represented medially or laterally?
laterally
387
largest fibre bundle connecting the halves of the brain
corpus callosum
388
name the parts of the corpus callosum, first to last
rostrum, genu, body, isthmus, splenium
389
what and where is the fornix
bundle of white matter beneath the body of the corpus callosum
390
function of the fornix
connect the hippocampus to various subcortical structures
391
what is the anterior commisure?
thick bundle of white matter crossing the midline horizontally
connects the temporal lobes and olfactory structures of each side
392
which pathways is the anterior commisure involved in?
olfactory
393
where is the septum pellucidum?
between the corpus callosum and the fornix
394
where is the anterior commisure in a cross section?
sort of continuous with the rostrum of the corpus callosum
395
where is the lamina terminalis?
extends downwards from the rostrum of the callosum and fornix to the anterior wall of the 3rd ventricle
396
what is the dorsal part of the diencephalon?
thalamus
397
what is the ventral part of the diencephalon?
hypothalamus
intuitive - 'hypo' = under
398
function of the thalamus
major subcortical relay for information ascending to the cerebral cortex
399
where and what is the interthalamic adhesion?
flattened grey disc joining the thalami of each side behind the interventricular foramen
400
what divides the diencephalon into dorsal and ventral parts, and where is it?
hypothalamic sulcus
lateral wall of the third ventricle
401
function of the medial geniculate nucleus/ body
relays auditory information from the midbrain to the auditory cortex and passes some fibres via the inferior brachium to the inferior colliculi
402
function of the lateral geniculate nucleus/ body
relays visual information from the optic nerve to both the visual cortex via the optic radiation (for vision) and the superior colliculi via the superior brachium (for pupillary reflexes)
403
function of the lateral geniculate nucleus/ body
relays visual information from the optic nerve to both the visual cortex via the optic radiation (for vision) and the superior colliculi via the superior brachium (for pupillary reflexes)
404
which brachium and geniculate body are the superior colliculi related to?
superior brachium
lateral geniculate body
405
which brachium and geniculate body are the inferior colliculi related to?
inferior brachium
medial geniculate body
406
function of the hypothalamus
homeostasis
autonomic nervous and neuroendocrine systems control
407
ventral part of the diencephalon below the thalamus and lateral to the hypothalamus, merging posteriorly with the tegmentum
sub thalamus
408
what part of the diencephalon is the preoptic area, on functional grounds?
hypothalamus
409
association fibres
link cortical regions within one cerebral hemisphere
410
commissural fibres
link similar functional areas of the two hemispheres
411
projection fibres?
link the cortex with subcortical structures
412
give examples of subcortical structures
diencephalon, pituitary gland, limbic structures and the basal ganglia
413
is the diencephalon above or below the midbrain?
above
414
what type of fibre is the corpus callosum?
commissural
415
what type of fibre is the internal capsule and corona radiata?
projection
416
functions of the left hemisphere
verbal
linguistic description
mathematical
sequential
analytical
direct link to consciousness
417
functions of the right hemisphere
almost nonverbal
musical
geometriical
spatial comprehension
temporal synthesis
link to consciousness?
418
function of the limbic system
projects meaning on the external world
essential for adaptive behaviour, emotional responsiveness and the ability to learn new responses based on previous experiences
419
what system is related to the limbic system?
olfactory
420
why is the limbic system named so?
the main parts are located on the edge or 'limbus' of the hemisphere
421
how are the parts of the limbic system connected?
the Papez circuit
422
list the parts of the limbic system
cingulate gyrus, hippocampal formation, parahippocampal gyrus, anterior perforated substance, septal nuclei, uncus, amygdala
also the parts of the diencephalon
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
- epithalamus
- subthalamus
423
what lies immediately dorsal and parallel to the corpus callosum?
cingulate gyrus
424
what is the parahippocampal gyrus continuous with?
cingulate gyrus
425
what lobe is the parahippocampal gyrus in?
temporal
426
what is the uncus
hook shaped region of cortex at the anterior end of the temporal lobe
427
role of the uncus
olfaction, emotions and memory
428
what is the longest association fibre bundle?
superior longitudinal fasciculus
429
what is the corona radiata continuous with below?
internal capsule
430
in which lobe is the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle?
frontal
431
what forms the roof and anterior wall of the lateral ventricle?
body and genu of the corpus callosum
432
what forms a bulge in the infero-lateral aspect of the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle?
caudate nucleus
433
what forms the medial wall of the lateral ventricle?
fornix and septum
434
action of superior oblique
moves the eye down and out
435
what is the stria terminalis?
slender bundle of white fibres accompanying the curve of the caudate into the temporal horn of the ventricle and connecting the amygdala with the septum and hypothalamus
436
which lobes do the lateral ventricles project into?
frontal, temporal, and occipital lobes
437
which horns does the lateral ventricle have?
anterior, inferior and posterior
438
in which lobe is the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle?
temporal
439
where is the amygdaloid body?
tip of the inferior horn
temporal lobe
440
in which lobe is the hippocampus?
temporal
441
efferent fibres from the hippocampus heading to the fornix
fimbria
442
in which lobe is the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle?
occipital
443
hydrocephalus
blockage of CSF flow in ventricles e.g tumours or subarachnoid space leads to rise in fluid pressure causing the ventricles to swell
relieved by inserting a shunt connecting the ventricular system to the peritoneum or jugular vein
symptoms
- raised intercranial pressure
- headache
- unsteadiness
- mental impairment
444
what forms the striatum?
caudate nucleus and putamen
445
what forms the lentiform nucleus?
putamen and globus pallidus
446
what is the claustrum?
part of basal ganglia
subcortical nucleus derived from the telencephalon
receives from and projects to the cerebral cortex in a topographically organised manner
contains cells that respond to visual, auditory and sensory stimuli
447
what is the extreme capsule?
white matter connecting the claustrum and insular cortex
448
what is between the extreme capsule and external capsule?
claustrum
449
what is between the insular cortex and claustrum?
extreme capsule
450
what does the corona radiata continue as inferiorly?
internal capsule
451
what separates the putamen and globus pallidus?
lateral medullary lamina
452
what separates the lateral and medial parts of the globus pallidus?
medial medullary lamina
453
what carries all the motor and sensory fibres from and to the cortex?
internal capsule
454
name the parts of the corpus callosum from anterior to posterior?
rostrum, genu, body, isthmus, splenium
really good bodies in Spain
455
what is the caudate nucleus?
paired, “C”-shaped subcortical structure which lies deep inside the brain near the thalamus
456
Parkinson's disease
degenration of dopaminergic neurones of the Substantia nigra
depletion of striatal dopamine levels
symptoms
- pill rolling tremor at rest
- cog-wheel rigidity
- bradykinesia
457
neurology of Huntington's
degeneration of the corpus striatum and cerebral cortex
458
ow many cervical vertebrae?
7
459
how many thoracic vertebrae?
12
460
how many lumbar vertebrae?
5
461
how many vertebrae fuse to form the sacrum?
5
462
how many coccygeal vertebrae fuse to form the coccyx?
4
463
what joins the spine and the pelvis?
sacroiliac joints
464
label a vertebrae
.
465
uppermost palpable spinous process
C7
466
higest point of iliac crest
between L3 and L4
467
movements of the vertbral column
forward flexion (40 degrees)
extension (15 degrees )
lateral flexion (30 degrees)
rotation (40)
468
where is rotation maximum?
thoracic region
469
where is rotation limited?
lumbar
470
re are flexion and extension limited?
thoracic due to ribcage
471
layers of intervertebral discs
nucleus pulposus surrounded by annulus fibrosis
472
sciatic nerve
L5
473
space between dura mater and vertebrae
epidural space
474
how many spinal nerve pairs?
31
475
many spinal cord segments?
31
476
how many cervical spinal segments?
8
not 7 as you might think
477
how many thoracic spinal cord segemtns
12
478
how many lumbar spinal cord segemtns?
5
479
how many sacral spinal cord segments?
5
480
how many coccygeal spinal cord segments?
1
481
where do spinal nerves exit the spinal canal?
intervertebral foramen
482
lumbar and sacral nerve roots below the termination of the cord
cauda equina
483
which joints are between vertebrae?
plane synovial
484
where does the spinal cord end?
between L1 and L2
485
bel the main spinal cord tracts
.
486
is the ventral root motor or sensory?
motor
487
is the dorsal root motor or sensory?
sensory
488
function of the ligamentum flavun
connect the ventral parts of the laminae of adjacent vertebrae
