IMMS anatomy Flashcards
what is the torso/ trunk?
main central part of the body including the thorax, abdomen and pelvis
not including the neck, head, upper or lower limb
what is the thorax?
upper part of the torso from the bottom of the neck to the diaphragm
what is the abdomen?
central part of the torso between the diaphragm and top of the pelvic bones
what is the pelvis?
lowest part of the torso, between the abdomen and start of the lower limbs
what is the back?
entire posterior surface of the torso
what is the arm?
upper part of the upper limb
torso to elbow
what is the forearm?
middle part of the upper limb
elbow to wrist
what is the thigh?
upper part of the lower limb
pelvis to knee
what is the leg?
middle part of the lower limb
anatomical word for above
superior
anatomical word for below
inferior
anatomical words for ‘in front of’
anterior/ ventral
anatomical word for behind
posterior/ dorsal
anatomical word for ‘closer to the centre line’
medial
anatomical word for ‘further away from the centre line’
lateral
anatomical word for ‘closer to the origin’
proximal
anatomical word for ‘further away from the origin’
distal
anatomical word for ‘the same side of the body’
ipsilateral
anatomical word for ‘the opposite side of the body’
contralateral
anatomical word for ‘further away from the surface’
deep
anatomical word for ‘closer to the surface’
superficial
supine position
lying down facing upwards
prone position
lying down, on front, facing face down
anatomical word for ‘towards the head’
cranial
anatomical word for ‘towards the tail’
caudal
anatomical word for ‘towards the face’
rostral
coronal/ frontal plane
face on
cuts a structure into an anterior and posterior part
saggital plane
side on
a midline sagittal incision cuts a structure into a left and right side
parasagittal
cut in the sagittal plane but parallel to the midline
axial/ transverse/ horizontal plane
end on
cuts a structure into a superior and inferior part
axial skeleton
central or core parts
skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum
appendicular skeleton
the bones of the limbs
including scapulae, clavicles and pelvic girdle
name the three histological types of joints
synovial, fibrous, cartilaginous
which histological type of joint is the most common?
synovial
describe a synovial joint
narrow synovial cavity separates the articular surfaces of the bones
cavity contains lubricating synovial fluid, which is enclosed in a joint capsule
layers of the joint capsule of synovial joints
outer fibrous capsule
inner synovial membrane
what covers the articular surface of synovial joints
hyaline cartilage
do synovial joints allow a small or great deal of movement?
great
give an example of a synovial joint
shoulder, knee, wrist
describe the structure of a fibrous joint
connects two bones with strong fibrous tissue
no cavity and no fluid
little if any movement
what joint is between the skull bones?
fibrous
describe primary cartilaginous joints
bones connected by hyaline cartilage, which allows some flexibility
describe secondary cartilaginous joints
bones connected by fibrocartilage
layer of hyaline cartilage covers articular surfaces of the bones
flexible but strong
can support a lot of weight
symphyses
give an example of a primary cartilaginous joint
where the ribs meet the sternum
give an example of a secondary cartilaginous joint
intervertebral discs
name the six biomechanical types of synovial joints
ball and socket
hinge
plane
pivot
saddle
condyloid
describe the movement of a ball and socket joint
mobile joints
significant range of movement in all directions, including rotation
describe the movement at a hinge joint
significant range of movement, but only in one plane
describe the movement at a pivot joint, using an example
top of the spine
first and second vertebrae articulate
the first vertebrae (CI, the atlas) at the base of the skull, plots around the peg of the second vertebrae (C2, the axis)
allows rotational movement only
describe a saddle joint
shaped like a rider sitting in a saddle
permit movement in two planes
describe a condyloid joint
like a ball and socket joint, but the joint surfaces are oval shaped
good range of movement but only in two planes
describe a plane joint
articular surfaces are almost flat and glide against each other
limited range of movement dictated by the neighbouring bones and surrounding ligaments
what type of joint is the hip?
ball and socket
what type of joint is the elbow?
hinge
what type of joint is where the first and second vertebrae articulate?
pivot
what type of joint is the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb?
saddle
what type of joint are the metacarpophalangeal joints?
condyloid
what type of joint is the acromioclavicular joint?
plane
what is a ligament?
band of fibrous connective tissue that attaches bone to bone
function of ligaments
stabilise joints and limit their movement
what is the mechanism behind double-jointedness?
hyper mobility caused by extremely stretchy ligaments
what is a sprain?
a ligament is overstretched and injured
what causes recurrent dislocation of a joint?
ligaments are stretched to the extent that they become permanently lax
what is flexion?
bending
decreasing the angle between the two parts
what is extension?
straightening
increasing the angle between the two parts
what is lateral flexion?
bending sideways
unique to the vertebral column
what is abduction?
movement away from the midline
what is adduction?
movement towards the midline
what is internal (medial) rotation?
rotating towards the midline (around an axis)
what is external (lateral) rotation?
rotating away from the midline (around an axis)
what is pronation?
unique to the forearm
internal rotation of the radius so the palm faces posteriorly
e.g our forearm and hand are prone when we type using a keyboard
what is supination?
unique to the forearm
external rotation of the radius, so the palm faces anteriorly
e.g the anatomical position
what is opposition?
unique to the thumb and little finger
flexion and rotation of the thumb or little finger to that each one can reach the other
what is circumduction?
combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction such that the appendage traces a circular or conical pattern
what is dorsiflexion?
unique to the ankle
the foot and toes move superiorly towards the shin (pointing the foot and toes up)
what is plantarflexion?
unique to the ankle
the foot and toes move inferiorly
(pointing the foot and toes down)
what is inversion?
unique to the foot and ankle
medial flexion so that the sole of the foot faces medially
what is eversion?
unique to the foot and ankle
lateral flexion so that the sole of the foot faces laterally
what is protraction?
unique to the scapula and mandible
movement of the scapula or mandible anteriorly
e.g moving the upper limb out in front of us to push open a door
what is retraction?
unique to the scapula and mandible
moving the scapula or mandible posteriorly
e.g squaring the shoulder
what is elevation?
unique to the scapula and mandible
moving the scapula or mandible superiorly
e.g shrugging, closing the mouth
what is depression?
unique to the scapula and mandible
moving the scapula or mandible inferiorly
e.g opening the mouth, returning the shoulders after elevation
function of skeletal muscle
provide support for the body
move joints and some soft tissues e.g eyeball and tongue
which types of muscle are striated?
skeletal and cardiac
where is smooth muscle found?
walls of blood vessels and internal organs such as the intestine
which type of muscle is not striated
smooth
how is smooth muscle controlled?
ANS
how is cardiac muscle controlled?
electrical impulses spontaneously generated by specialised cells within the heart
ANS influences these cells and can speed up or slow down the heart rate
function of tendons
strong connective tissues attaching skeletal muscles to bone or soft tissues
what is the muscle between tendons called?
belly
forms tendons can take
rounded like a cord
thin, flat sheets called aponeuroses e.g in the scalp and abdominal wall
term for the bone that does not move when a muscle contracts
origin
term for a bone that does move when a muscle contracts
insertion
main orientations of skeletal muscle fibres
parallel, convergent, circular, pennate
describe the orientation of fibres in parallel muscles
fibres aligned parallel to each other
subtypes of parallel muscles
fusiform - long tendon at each end and the muscle belly bulges out in the middle e.g biceps brachii
strap - belt-shaped and uniform in width at the belly
e.g rectus abdominis
describe the orientation of fibres in convergent muscles
fan-shaped muscles
broad attachment at one end
fibres converge onto a much smaller attachment at the other
e.g pec major
describe the orientation of fibres in circular muscles
fibres arranged in concentric rings around a structure and are often called sphincters
e.g muscles around the eyes and lips
describe the orientation of fibres in pennate muscles
fibres arranged at an angle to the direction in which the muscle acts
subtypes of pennate muscles
unipennate - fibres arranged diagonally in relation to the tendon and insert onto one side of the tendon only
bipennate - fibres arranged in a V-shape and insert onto both sides of the tendon
multipennate - multiple bipennate muscles side-by-side, all attaching to one tendon
what is the smallest functional unit of the nervous system?
motor unit
what is a motor unit?
comprises a single motor neurone, its axon and the muscle fibres it supplies
can a muscle fibre be supplied by multiple motor neurone?
no
each individual muscle fiber in a muscle is innervated by one, and only one, motor neurone
can a motor neurons supply multiple muscle fibres?
yes
a single motor neurone can innervate many muscle fibres
what is the upper limb adapted for?
dexterity
what is the lower limb adapted for?
bipedal locomotion and supporting the weight of the body
adaptations of the upper limb
shallow socket and relatively lax ligaments which allow a significant range of motion for positioning the hand
fingers are long and perform complex movements
adaptations of the lower limb
deep socket and strong ligaments so it is more stable but less mobile that the shoulder joint
foot and toes are adapted for weight bearing rather than dexterity
where does the vertebral column span from?
base of the skull to the coccyx
functions of the spine
protect the spinal cord
provide an attachment for muscles
allows movement
how many vertebrae are there?
33
name the 5 sections of the vertebral column
cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacral
coccygeal
how many cervical vertebrae are there?
7
how many thoracic vertebrae are there?
12
how many lumbar vertebrae are there?
5
how many sacral vertebrae are there?
5
how many coccygeal vertebrae are there, and what form do they take?
4
Co1-Co4
fused into the coccyx
why is the vertebral column curved?
absorbs shock
which parts of the spine curve anteriorly? what’re these sections called?
cervical and lumbar
cervical lordosis
lumbar lordosis
which parts of the spine curve posteriorly? what are these sections called?
thoracic and sacral
thoracic kyphosis
sacral kyphosis
function of intervertebral discs
support the weight of the upper body and absorb shock
describe the distinguishing features of cervical vertebrae
bifid (two pronged) spinous processes
holes in the transverse processes (transverse foramen)
oval shaped bodies
the first two are uniquely modified for rotation of the head
describe the distinguishing features of thoracic vertebrae
long, sharp, downward-sloping spinous processes that overlap the vertebra below
additional articular facets for the attachment of ribs and heart-shaped bodies
describe the distinguishing features of lumbar vertebrae
short, blunt spinous processes and extra large, oval shaped bodies to support the weight of the body
describe the distinguishing features of sacral vertebrae
fused into the sacrum
triangular shaped bone that sits in the posterior midline
it articulates with the left and right hip bones to form the bony pelvis
describe the coccygeal vertebrae
fused to form the coccyx - vestigial remnant of what used to be a tail
what protects the spinal cord?
vertebral column
function of axons and dendrites
allow neurons to communicate with other neurons
meaning of cranial
head end
towards the head
meaning of caudal
tail end
with regards to the brain, caudal means posterior
with regards to the spinal cord, caudal means inferior
meaning of rostral
towards the face
with regards to the brain, rostral means anterior
with regards to the spinal cord, rostral means superior
what is the PNS?
all nervous tissue outside the CNS
what is the CNS?
brain and spinal cord
which nerves make up the PNS?
cranial - arise from the brain
spinal - arise from the spinal cord
autonomic
what does the cerebral cortex contain?
neuron cell bodies
why is the cerebral cortex called grey matter?
grey appearance due to neuron cell bodies
name for the folds in the cerebral cortex
gyri
name for the grooves between the folds in the cerebral cortex?
sulci
what can we find deep to the cerebral cortex in the cerebral hemispheres?
masses of axons
what is white matter?
masses of axons where information is transmitted through bundles of fibres
what are nuclei?
collection of cell bodies in the CNS
what are the lobes of the cerebral hemispheres named after?
bones of the skull that overlie them
name the lobes of the brain
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
functions of the cerebellum
balance, coordination and movement
components of the brainstem
midbrain, pons, medulla
functions of the brainstem
relays information between the cerebrum, spinal cord and cerebellum
gives rise to most cranial nerves
contains centres that regulate breathing and consciousness
at which spinal level does the spinal cord end? (it’s shorter than the vertebral column)
L1-L2
what constitutes the grey matter?
neuronal cell bodies
is the grey matter on the inside or outside of an axial cross section of the spinal cord?
inside
how many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
31
what are brain ventricles?
cerebrospinal fluid filled cavities within the brain
function of CSF
provide nutrients to the brain
protects the brain as a cushion against trauma
prevents delicate nerves and vessels from being compressed between the brain and the internal surface of the skull
how many meninges are there?
3
name the meningeal layers from superficial to deep
dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater
(PAD out)
function of the meninges?
protect the brain
provide a scaffold for blood vessels
which pairs of arteries supply the brain?
left and right internal carotid arteries
left and right vertebral arteries
anastomosis on thee inferior surface of the cerebrum
Circle of Willis
what are dural venous sinuses?
large veins enclosed within the dura mater
function of the motor component of the somatic nervous system
voluntary contraction of skeletal muscle
function of the sensory component of the somatic nervous system
sends information about peripheral stimuli from the sensory receptors in the body to the CNS, to reach our conscious perception e.g pain
functions of the ANS
involuntary activities such as heart rate, blood pressure and digestion
function of the somatic nervous system
voluntary activities
what does the motor component of the ANS control?
smooth muscle, glands, and cardiac muscle
function of the sympathetic nervous system
fight and flight
or the 4Fs: fight, fright, flight and freeze
function of the parasympathetic nervous system
rest and digest
function of the sensory component of the the autonomic nervous system
conveys sensory information about the internal environment from the viscera (organs) to the CNS
it does not reach our conscious perception
e.g blood pressure monitoring
what are visceral efferent nerves?
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves that leave the CNS and travel to the periphery
describe the sympathetic response
heart rate increases
bronchi dilate
peripheral blood vessels constrict and divert blood away from the skin and gut to skeletal muscles in preparation for activity
pupils dilate
hair stands on end
sweat glands ar stimulated
describe the parasympathetic response
heart rate decreases
bronchi constrict
glands are stimulated e.g salivary glands
gut activity (peristalsis) is stimulated
pupils constrict
how many neurons do sympathetic and parasympathetic systems have in the pathway from the CNS to the effector?
2
where does the cell body of the first neuron of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems lie?
CNS
which spinal segments correspond to where sympathetic neuron cell bodies lie?
T1-L2/3
which spinal segments and part of the brain correspond to where parasympathetic neuron cell bodies lie?
brainstem and sacral spinal cord
what is a ganglion
collection of cell bodies outside the CNS
what is the name of the first parasympathetic or sympathetic neuron?
preganglionic/ presynaptic
what is the name of the second parasympathetic or sympathetic neuron?
postganglionic/ postsynaptic
the postganglionic fibres travel to target organs
describe the arrangement of the sympathetic system
first neuron cell body in the thoracic or lumbar spinal cord
short preganglionic axon
second neuron cell body in a ganglion close to the CNS
long postganglionic axon
target organ/ effector e.g smooth muscle in the blood vessel walls
describe the arrangement of the parasympathetic system
first neuron cell body in the brainstem or sacral spinal cord
long preganglionic axon
second neuron cell body in a ganglion close to the target organ
short postganglionic axon (or parasympathetic ganglia may be within target organs)
target organ/ effector e.g smooth muscle in wall of the intestine
which part of the ANS is more widely distributed?
sympathetic
what are visceral afferent fibres?
sensory autonomic fibres conveying information from the viscera back to the CNS
function of the sensory component of the ANS
monitor internal environment e.g blood pressure, level of blood oxygen
send information back to the CNS
these sensory inputs elicit reflex responses which maintain our internal environment
this information does not reach our conscious perception
visceral afferents also convey information to the CNS about distension, stretch, spasm or ischaemia of the viscera - this causes pain or discomfort that DOES reach out consciousness
how many pairs of cranial nerves are there?
12
how do nerves exit the skull?
via foramina
how many cervical spinal nerves do we have, and why is this unusual?
8
we have 7 cerical vertebrae
how many thoracic spinal nerves do we have?
12
how many lumbar spinal nerves do we have?
5
how many sacral spinal nerves do we have?
5
how many coccygeal spnal nerves do we have?
1
Co1
how do spinal nerves leave the vertebral column?
intervertebral foramina
where do the cell bodies of motor neurons lie?
ventral horn of the spinal cord (grey matter)
how do somatic motor fibres leave the spinal cord?
a series of rootlets, which merge to form the ventral (motor) root of the spinal nerve
where do cell bodies of peripheral sensory neurons lie?
dorsal root ganglia
structure of peripheral sensory neurons
two processes - one that projects peripherally into the spinal nerve and one that projects centrally into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord
how does sensory information travel from peripheral receptors towards the DRG?
via the spinal nerve
how does sensory information travel from the DRG to the dorsal horn?
series of rootlets
what type of fibres do all 31 pairs of spinal nerves contain?
sympathetic
why are sympathetic fibres so widespread?
they innervate sweat glands, smooth muscle in blood vessel walls and hair follicles (arrestor pili muscles)
reach every part of the body
what is a dermatome?
area of skin innervated by a single spinal nerve
what is a myotome?
group of muscles innervated by a single spinal nerve
name structures that can be found in the thorax
heart and lungs
trachea
oesophagus
arteries and veins
nerves
lymphatic vessels
what separates the thorax and abdominal cavity?
diaphragm
what is the bony skeleton of the thorax called?
thoracic cage
name the parts of the sternum
manubrium, body and xiploid process
where is the suprasternal notch
superior border of the manubrium
lateral joint between the clavicle and manubrium
sternoclavicular joint
which part of the sternum does the clavicle articulate with?
manubrium
what is the angle of Louis?
manubriosternal joint
where the manubrium and body articulate
how many pairs of ribs do we have?
12 (one for each thoracic vertebra)
what are the anterior parts of the ribs composed of?
costal cartilage
what are costochondral joints?
where the ribs articulate with their costal cartilages
at which joints do the ribs articulate with their costal cartilages?
costochondral
what are costovertebral joints?
where ribs articulate posteriorly with thoracic vertebrae
at which joints do the ribs articulate with thoracic vertebrae?
costovertebral
what are sternocostal joints?
where the costal cartilages of the upper ribs articulate with the sternum
at which joints do costal cartilages of the upper ribs articulate with the sternum?
sternocostal
what are the joints between the vertebrae?
intervertebral
where are atrioventricular valves, and what are they called?
between the atria and ventricles
tricuspid on the right
mitral on the left
where are the semilunar valves and what are they called?
between the ventricles and large blood vessels that carry blood from them
pulmonary valve
aortic valve
where is the pulmonary valve?
entrance to the pulmonary trunk
where is the aortic valve?
entrance to the aorta
which arteries supply blood to the myocardium?
coronary arteries
what is the circulation between the heart and lungs called?
cardiopulmonary
which circulation serves the rest of the body?
systemic
approximately how many alveoli are in each lung?
300 million
how many lobes does the right lung have?
3
name the lobes of the right lung
superior, middle, inferior
how many lobes does the left lung have?
two
name the lobes of the left lung
upper and lower
what separates the lobes of the lung?
fissures
how many pulmonary arteries and veins serve each lung?
one pulmonary artery
two pulmonary veins
what is the bronchial tree?
branching system of tubes that conduct air into and out of the lungs
describe the bronchial tree?
trachea bifurcates into the left and right main bronchi, which enter the left and right lungs
each main bronchus divides into a series of smaller bronchi, which divide into bronchioles
with each division, the bronchioles become smaller and smaller
do bronchioles contain cartilage?
no
do bronchi contain cartilage?
yes
effect of parasympathetic stimulation of the bronchioles
bronchoconstriction
effect of sympathetic stimulation of the bronchioles
bronchodilation
where is the midsternal (anterior median) line?
drawn straight down the centre of the sternum
where is the midclavicular line?
drawn inferiorly from the midpoint of the clavicle
where is the anterior axillary line?
drawn inferiorly from the anterior axilla (armpit)
where is the midaxillary line?
drawn inferiorly from the middle of the axilla
where is the posterior axillary line?
drawn inferiorly from the posterior axilla
where is the scapula line?
drawn inferiorly through the scapula
where is the midvertebral (posterior median) line?
drawn straight down along the spinous processes of the vertebrae
