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neuro final Flashcards

1
Q

What consists of the anatomy of the human eye?

A

sclera, iris, cornea, pupil

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2
Q

What are the cornea and lens important for?

A

They are important for focus and they use refraction to bend light

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3
Q

What is the retina used for?

A

Its used to transduce light(to detect light)

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4
Q

What is the optic nerve used for?

A

Axons that carry visual to rest of brain

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5
Q

Where is an object when more refraction is needed(more focus)?

A

Near the eye

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6
Q

Where is an object when less refraction is needed(more focus)?

A

Further from the eye

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7
Q

What are photoreceptors made of?

A

Rods + Cones

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8
Q

What do photoreceptors do

A

Light is transduced into neural activity by the photoreceptors in the retina

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9
Q

How does the cellular organization of the retina go?

A

It goes from photoreceptors(light sensitive) to horizontal cells, to bipolar cells, to amacrine cells, to ganglion cells

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10
Q

What do ganglion cells do?

A

They fire action potentials and send output through the optic nerve

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11
Q

What do photoreceptors do for rods and cones?

A

Photoreceptors outer segments absorb light & trigger changes in the rod/cone membrane potential

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12
Q

What factors are important for rods?

A

high sensitivity for night vision, achromatic, not present in fovea(low acuity)

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13
Q

What factors are important for cones?

A

Low sensitivity for day vision, chromatic(3 types of pigments), concentrated in fovea(high acuity)

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14
Q

What are the similarities between cones and rods?

A

They both have mitochondria’s, nucleus, synaptic vesicles, cilium, plasma membrane

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15
Q

What’s the correct flow of info about light, from peripheral sensory organ to the brain

A

Photoreceptors to bipolar cells to retinal ganglion cells to optic nerve to brain

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16
Q

What is the fovea a region of?

A

High visual acuity and color vision

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17
Q

What do horizontal cells interact with?

A

They interact with photoceptors and bipolar cells to modify responses to light and integrate across many cells

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18
Q

What causes color blindness?

A

Mutations in any of the 3 cone photopigments/opsins

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19
Q

What happens if light shines strongly in this receptive field?

A

Photoreceptors release less glutamate when light shines strongly in this receptive field

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20
Q

Do photoreceptors depolarize in the dark?

A

Yes, and they hyperpolarize in the light

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21
Q

What does the activation of a rhodopsin molecule set off a chain reaction that leads to the ?

A

Closing of a large number of sodium channels

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22
Q

what does the phototransduction on rods and cones do?

A

Phototransduction is the process by which the absorbed light triggers an electrical response (the neural signal) in rods and cones

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23
Q

.Why are our eyes good at detecting light/dark edges?

A

Because of the center-surround response of ganglia cells

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24
Q

Where does direct input go through to reach bipolar cells?

A

Through the receptive field center

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25
Q

Where does indirect input go through to reach bipolar cells?

A

Through the field surround

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26
Q

What do horizontal cells provide photoreceptors and bipolar cells?

A

They provide them indirect inhibitory input

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27
Q

What happens to On-Center bipolar cells in response to light?

A

They depolarize

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28
Q

What happens to Off-Center retinal ganglion cells in response to light?

A

They don’t fire action potentials

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29
Q

What order are photoreceptors, off ganglion cells and off bipolar cells put in when responding to light?

A

Photoreceptor hyperpolarizes in light(less glutamate release) then Na+ channels-Off-bipolar cells hyperpolarize in light, then Off-ganglion cell(no AP in light)

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30
Q

What order are photoreceptors, on ganglion cells and on bipolar cells put in when responding to light?

A

Photoreceptor hyperpolarizes in light(less glutamate release) then metabotropic glutamate receptors-On-bipolar cells depolarize in light, then On-ganglion cell(lots of AP in light)

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31
Q

When light enters the eye, what does it pass before reaching the photoreceptors at the rear end of the retina?

A

In passes the ganglion cells and bipolar cells

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32
Q

What influences the membrane potential of photoreceptors, then bipolar cells, then ganglion cells?

A

Light

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33
Q

What is the cornea?

A

A protective layer on the front of the eye

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34
Q

What structures or cells of the mammalian auditory system transduces pressure changes into electrical signals that are eventually relayed to the brain?

A

Hair cells

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35
Q

Traveling along the basilar membrane, away from the ossicles towards the apex, does what to the frequency?

A

It goes from high to low

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36
Q

what does auditory transduction depend on?

A

K+ influx into the cell, Mechanically-gated ion channels, and the stereocilia bending

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37
Q

Do photoreceptors and hair cells generate action potentials?

A

No

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38
Q

What is increased intensity encoded by?

A

Spikes/second

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39
Q

What is auditory information transduced through?

A

Mechano-electrical transduce(MET)transduction

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40
Q

What is visual information transduced by?

A

Photoreceptor transduction

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41
Q

What is the best intervention for deafness if it is caused by deletion or mutation rendering the mechano-electrical transduce non-functional?

A

Cochlear implant

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42
Q

What type of somatosensory neurons transduce proprioceptive signals about the body’s position in space?

A

A-alpha fibers(la and ib fibers)

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43
Q

What type of sensory neurons detect pain?

A

A-delta and c-fibers

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44
Q

Of all the somatosensory neurons, what fibers conduct the fastest and why?

A

A-alpha fibers(la or ib fibers) bc they have the largest diameter and are myelinated

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45
Q

What is adaptation in somatosensory?

A

Its a change over time to a sustained stimulus

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46
Q

What does the gate control theory of pain help explain?

A

Why rubbing an injury can reduce pain

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47
Q

What is hyperalgesia?

A

It is enhanced pain

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48
Q

What is a process that contributes to hyperalgesia?

A

Inflammation and release of sensitizing molecules from the immune cells

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49
Q

What type of fibers are used for pain?

A

Unmyelinated fibers

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50
Q

What type of ending detects pain?

A

Free nerve endings

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51
Q

What type of channels can pain involve?

A

TRP channels

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52
Q

What are the ways your body encodes information about a sensory stimulus?

A

Phase locking, firing frequency, cortical maps which spatially represent some feature of sensory stimulus, and population or combinatorial coding

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53
Q

Which neurotransmitter is released across the neuromuscular junction?

A

Acetylcholine

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54
Q

What is the primary motor cortex responsible for?

A

execution of movement

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55
Q

What is the premotor cortex responsible for?

A

Planning movement

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56
Q

Writing a letter requires which motor regions?

A

The primary motor(M1), premotor cortex, and supplementary motor cortex

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57
Q

Which half of the brain controls voluntary movement in the right half of the body?

A

The left(vice versa)

58
Q

What is the key neurotransmitter in long-term potentiation?

A

Glutamate

59
Q

What process may be involved in long-term depression to output something out of the postsynaptic membrane?

A

LTD may involve endocytosis or recycling of AMPA receptors out of the postsynaptic membrane

60
Q

Sensations are constrained to what?

A

To what can be detected by receptors and what can be interpreted by the brain

61
Q

individual neurons are tuned(respond strongly) to what?

A

To particular features of complex stimuli

62
Q

Stimulus qualities are represented in what manner?

A

In an orderly manner in relevant brain regions

63
Q

What is the general organizational flow of the auditory system?

A

From the auditory cells in the cochlea(in the ear), to the brainstem neurons, to the MGM of thalamus, to the auditory cortex

64
Q

What is the general organizational flow of the visual system?

A

From the Photoreceptors to the other retinal neurons to the LGN of the thalamus to the visual cortex

65
Q

What maps are key features formed by the peripheral sensory organs and refined at all levels in the brain?

A

Tonotopic maps and retinotopic maps

66
Q

What are the functional evidence for TMC as the MET?

A

Mutation causes deafness, expressed in organ of corti, TMC1 has multiple transmembrane domains, localized near stereocilia, deletion/mutation reduces single ion channels currents(in response to mechanical stimulus)

67
Q

How do you identify thermoreceptors?

A

Expression profiling leads to identification of ion channels that confer heat/cold sensitivity

68
Q

What is the process of identifying thermoreceptors?

A

Capsaicin-sensitive neurons to cDNA to transfect into non-responsive cells to identify cDNA that confers sensitivity

69
Q

What does it mean when the indirect path is inhibitory(GABA) when outputting to bipolar cells?

A

The effect of the surround is the opposite to the center

70
Q

What is the process of amplification of sound?

A

Sound vibrates the tympanic membrane, then the tympanic membrane moves ossicles, then the ossicles vibrate fluid in cochlea at oval window

71
Q

What effect does sound have on the basilar membrane?

A

It causes its displacement

72
Q

What is the basilar membrane?

A

It is the base below the haircells;flexible

73
Q

What happens to the stereocilia in response to the sound waves deflecting the basilar membrane?

A

Stereocilia bends

74
Q

What does the stereocilia bending do?

A

It converts sound to electrical signals

75
Q

What happens when mechanical stimulus converts to electrochemical signals?

A

The mechanical stimulus stretches or shortens stereocilia’s tip links

76
Q

What does it mean when the mechanical stimulus stretch in a certain direction?

A

It opens MET, triggers k+ influx, depolarization, neurotransmitter release

77
Q

What are hair cells?

A

They are not a neuron and they maintain in the receptor potentials

78
Q

What do afferent neurons of the auditory nerve relay to?

A

They relay auditory info to CNS

79
Q

What consists of an artificial cochlea?

A

Bypass typical auditory transduction pathway, sound processor with microphone, coil transmits electrical signal to implant, implant has array of electrodes, placed to stimulate the auditory-vestibular nerve

80
Q

What makes a tonotopic map?

A

The location(depends on tone/pitch/freq) of activated neurons

81
Q

What is the auditory pathway from ear to brain?

A

Signals sent form inferior colliculus(midbrain) to medial geniculate nucleus(MGN) of thalamus to auditory cortex(A1)

82
Q

What is the somatosensory system?

A

Different sensations activate different nerves(labeled line theory), different sensations activate the same nerves with different intensities, and different sensations activate different subsets of nerves(pattern theory)

83
Q

Nerve size dictates what?

A

It dictates type

84
Q

What is Aα?

A

Largest diameter sensory afferents(muscles)

85
Q

What is Aβ?

A

Slightly smaller diameter fibers(touch)

86
Q

What is Aδ, C?

A

Smaller diameter fibers(pain, itch, temperature)

87
Q

What do TRP channels mediate?

A

Pain, temperature, and itch

88
Q

What does TRPA1 respond to?

A

Many chemicals like cinnamic aldehyde or allcin

89
Q

What does TRPV1 respond to?

A

Capsaicin, heat, histamine

90
Q

What does TRPM8 respond to?

A

Menthol and cold

91
Q

What do sensitized pain neurons result from?

A

Intense, sustained activation

92
Q

Aδ, Aβ, and Aα go through which sensory pathway?

A

The dorsal column-medial leminscal pathway

93
Q

Aδ and C go through which sensory pathway?

A

The spinothalamic pathway

94
Q

What is the gate control theory of pain?

A

Activation of touch neurons can inhibit pain due to interactions between touch and pain neurons in the spinal cord

95
Q

What does a single motor unit consist of?

A

one ALPHA motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it controls

96
Q

each muscle fiber only has

A

one motor neuron

97
Q

1 alpha motor neuron has

A

many fibers

98
Q

What do organization of motor neurons represent?

A

groups of muscles in the spinal cord

99
Q

What can the body do to increase muscle contraction?

A

Increase firing rate of motor neurons and recruit additional motor units

100
Q

What is the process of excitation-contraction coupling?

A

Alpha motor neuron AP then acetylcholine is released at neurotransmitter junction, then acetylcholine binds receptors which depolarizes muscle cell then the muscle cell fires an and AP causes calcium release then calcium leads to contraction which requires ATP

101
Q

What do lateral pathways specialize in?

A

Distal voluntary movements

102
Q

What do ventromedial pathways specialize in?

A

Posture, balance, locomotion

103
Q

What is the knee-jerk reflex process?

A

Stretching stimulates sensory receptor, then sensory neuron excited, then within spinal cord, then motor neuron is exited, then effector(quads contracts to relive stretching

104
Q

What cortical areas are involved in voluntary movement?

A

Primary(initiation and execution) motor cortex and the premotor(Planning) and supplementary(initiation) motor cortex

105
Q

What are mirror neurons and what do they do?

A

They respond in preparation for the execution of a particular movement but also when the same action is being preformed by another individual

106
Q

What area are mirror neurons in?

A

In the ventrolateral area of the premotor cortex

107
Q

What are prediction errors?

A

The discrepancy between predicted and actual information

108
Q

What relays on prediction errors?

A

both motor and non-motor neurons

109
Q

What is aplysia to humans?

A

It is changes in synaptic strength underlying learning and memory

110
Q

What two parts consist of memory consolidation?

A

Synaptic consolidation(plasticity) and system consolidation

111
Q

What are LTP mechanisms?

A

Strong depolarization is needed for calcium influx through NMDA receptors

112
Q

What is the process of LTP mechanisms?

A

Glutamate binds to AMPA receptors causing Na+ influx and depolarization then NMDA receptors open upon glutamate binding and cell strongly depolarized to remove Mg2+ block then Ca2+ flows through the NMDA receptors pore into the cell

113
Q

What are the key properties to LTP?

A

Persistence, input specificity, cooperativity, and associativity

114
Q

What’s the goal of immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry(IHC)?

A

To visualize specific proteins in tissues

115
Q

What approach is taken on immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry(IHC)?

A

With specific antibodies and stains/dyes

116
Q

What is the process of immunofluorescence?

A

It goes from adding a primary antibody, to adding a secondary antibody conjugated to fluorophore then a UV light is put on it then you visualize using a fluorescence microscopy

117
Q

What is the process of immunohistochemistry?

A

Add primary antibody then add secondary antibody conjugated to HRP then add chromogen HRP catalyzes reaction to produce colored precipitate then colored precipitate accumulates around location of antigen, then visualize using brightfield microscopy

118
Q

What does IHC identify?

A

Different subsets of taste receptor cells

119
Q

What is immunohistochemistry?

A

Stain for taste receptor proteins in a taste bud(use antibodies against ENaC and TrpM5)

120
Q

What is the expression analysis for immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry?

A

Goal: use sequencing to quantify gene expression(at RNA transcript level) and Approach: microarray and RNAseq

121
Q

What does RNAseq do?

A

Counts mRNA transcripts to quantify gene expression

122
Q

What does TTX do?

A

Block voltage gated sodium channels, inhibits APs firing, can cause death by respiratory failure and are present in pufferfish

123
Q

What does APV do?

A

Blocks glutamate receptors(NMDA) and provides info about neurotransmitters used by cells of interest

124
Q

What does curare do?

A

Blocks acetylcholine receptors(nAChR specifically) and provides info about neurotransmitters used by cells of interest

125
Q

What is calcium imaging?

A

It is used to measure neural activity, you add a chemical dye or genetically encoded indicator that can change its fluorescence in response to Ca2+ then image the brain with a microscope, this results in effectively measuring activity in individual neuros since increases in Ca2+ are associated with neurotransmission

126
Q

What is GCaMP?

A

Calcium indicator

127
Q

What does calcium imaging reveal?

A

Properties of taste responsive cells in the brain

128
Q

What neurons relay the signal of GCaMP?

A

Voltage-sensitive dyes, fluorescence of dye changes to reflect changes in membrane potential directly

129
Q

What is current-clamp electrophysiology used for?

A

To learn about the type of neurons and its ion channels

130
Q

How is current-clamp electrophysiology done?

A

You apply/inject a known current to mimic the current that would be produced if the cell received inputs from other neurons to measure resulting change in membrane potential

131
Q

What is electrophysiology: patch clamp?

A

For small cells, patch onto outside cell rather than piercing cell, enable recording from single channel

132
Q

What is optogenetics?

A

It allows selective activation of neuron with blue light causing neurons expressing Channelrhodopsin2 to spike

133
Q

What functional brain imaging techniques exist?

A

Temporal resolution, Spatial resolution, and invasiveness

134
Q

What functional imaging measures neural activity leading to changes in blood flow?

A

fMRI, etc

135
Q

What functional imaging neural activity generates electrical signals?

A

EEG, etc

136
Q

what is fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)?

A

Measurement of blood oxygenation: BOLD response, poor temporal resolution(6-8sec), relatively good spatial resolution

137
Q

What does fMRI do?

A

Compare relative differences in brain activity between two or more conditions(rest vs preforming)

138
Q

What is EEG (Electroencephalogram)?

A

Recordings of neural activity at scalp, good temporal resolution, poor spatial resolution: space distorted by scalp, non invasive

139
Q

What does the averaging EEG signal provide?

A

Event-related potential(ERP): can be measures of reaction time or response to a stimulus

140
Q

What is GWAS?

A

A genome-wide association study

intro to neuroscience (10 decks)

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