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Nervous System Organization Flashcards

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1
Q

The brain contains approximately ______ neurons, and each neuron makes up to ____ connections with other neurons

A

86 billion, 30,000

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2
Q

Groups of neurons in the central nervous system are called nuclei

A

nuclei

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3
Q

Groups of axons within the central nervous system are called tracts

A

tracts

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4
Q

What axis of the body does rostral-caudal refer to?

A

Nose to tail axis

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5
Q

what ‘relative’ location term is rostral-caudal roughly synonymous with?

A

Anterior-posterior

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6
Q

What axis of the body does dorsal-ventral refer to?

A

Back to front

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7
Q

what relative location term is roughly synonymous with dorsal-ventral?

A

superior-inferior

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8
Q

what do the terms medial-lateral refer to?

A

towards the middle or towards the side

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9
Q

what sort of structures does ipsilateral refer to?

A

structures on the same side of the body

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10
Q

what sort of structures does contralateral refer to?

A

structures on opposite sides of the body

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11
Q

what sort of structures does distal refer to?

A

structures that are far apart

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12
Q

the term afferent (ie: in nerve impulses) defines what sort of movement?

A

movement toward the CNS

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13
Q

the term efferent (ie: nerve impulses) defines what type of movement?

A

movement away from the central nervous system

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14
Q

how many names can any one part of the brain have?

A

2, functional and structural

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15
Q

What is the anatomical name for the most posterior part of the frontal lobe, along the central sulcus?

A

precentral gyrus

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16
Q

what is the functional name for the most posterior part of the frontal lobe, along the central sulcus?

A

primary motor cortex

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17
Q

The nervous system can be divided based on its…

A

structure, or its function

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18
Q

the brain and spinal cord are the 2 main components of what category?

A

CNS

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19
Q

what are the two main branches of the peripheral nervous system?

A

somatic and autonomic

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20
Q

the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches are subsections of which nervous system?

A

autonomic

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21
Q

what type of nerves are included in the somatic nervous system?

A

cranial nerves and spinal nerves

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22
Q

what are the components of the ANATOMICAL nervous system divisions?

A

CNS: brain, spinal cord
PNS: somatic and autonomic nervous systems

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23
Q

what are the components of the FUNCTIONAL nervous system divisions?

A

CNS: brain, spinal cord
Somatic Nervous System: cranial nerves, spinal nerves
Autonomic Nervous System: parasympathetic division, sympathetic division

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24
Q

what is the function of the CNS?

A

to mediate behaviour

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25
Q

what is the function of the somatic nervous system?

A

to transmit sensation and produce movement

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26
Q

what is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

A

to balance internal functions

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27
Q

what are all the ways that the central nervous system is protected?

A

-by bone (skull, vertebral column) surrounding the tissue of the CNS

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28
Q

3 types of what surround the CNS to hold it in place, and what are their names?

A

Meninges
3 types: Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

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29
Q

what is the dura mater?

A

literally, “tough mother”. is the tough outer covering of the CNS

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30
Q

what is the arachnoid mater?

A

weblike structures that connect the inner and outer layers within the CNS

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31
Q

what is the Pia mater?

A

the tough inner layer that adheres to the surface of the brain

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32
Q

what substance fills the spaces in and around the meninges, and what is its function?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid, absorbs shocks and carries away waste

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33
Q

what structure provides chemical protection to the CNS?

A

Blood brain barrier

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34
Q

how is the BBB formed?

A

by astroglia that hold the cells of the blood vessels tightly together.

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35
Q

how does the BBB provide chemical protection to the CNS?

A

Regulates what molecules can exit the blood supply to enter the brain.

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36
Q

what is the benefit of having numerous arteries supply blood to the brain?

A

ensures that damage to a single blood vessel would not interrupt blood flow to the entire brain

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37
Q

what is a stroke?

A

an interruption of blood supply to the brain, either because the artery becomes blocked, or because the artery bursts

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38
Q

what does the type of deficit observed after a stroke inform clinicians about?

A

the location of the blood damage, and therefore provides a strong suggestion about which blood vessel is damaged

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39
Q

In utero, how does the brain start?

A

as neural stem cells that are undifferentiated

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40
Q

stem cells divide into ____ which develop into ____ or _____

A

neuroblasts —> neurons, or glioblasts —> glia

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41
Q

what are the three basic types of neurons?

A

sensory, interneurons, motor

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42
Q

what are the roles/characteristics of sensory neurons?

A

-transduce info from the environment
-bipolar neurons: 1 axon and 1 dendrite
-somatosensory neuron has only one projection from the soma
-AFFERENT

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43
Q

what are the roles/characteristics of Interneurons?

A

-connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS
-often have extensive branching of the dendrites to gather information

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44
Q

what are the roles and characteristics of motor neurons?

A

-found in brainstem and spinal cord
-project to muscles to carry out movement
-EFFERENT

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45
Q

what are some types of common glial cells?

A

ependymal cells, astrocytes, microglial cells, oligodendroglial cells, Schwann cells

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46
Q

what are the features and functions of Ependymal cells?

A

small, ovoid,
secrete CSF

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47
Q

what are the features and functions of astrocytes?

A

star shaped, symmetrical
-nutritive and support function

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48
Q

what are the features and functions of microglial cells?

A

small, mesodermally derived, defensive function

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49
Q

what are the features and functions of oligodendroglial cells?

A

asymmetrical, forms insulating myelin around axons in brain and spinal cord

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50
Q

what are the features and functions of Schwann cells?

A

asymmetrical, wraps around peripheral nerves to form insulating myelin

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51
Q

what makes up gray matter?

A

Gray matter contains the cell bodies and capillaries that supply them with blood

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52
Q

where is gray matter typically found?

A

Gray matter is typically the outer part of the cortex

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53
Q

what comprises white matter, and where is it typically found?

A

White matter is the myelinated axons that connect with other parts of the brain
White matter is typically underneath the cortex

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54
Q

what is reticular matter, and where is it found?

A

Reticular matter has a netlike appearance that is a mix of gray and white matter
Reticular matter tends to be found in the brainstem

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55
Q

how does the nervous system develop?

A

Nervous system develops from three enlargements of the embryonic spinal cord

56
Q

What are the three enlargements of the embryonic spinal cord, at the very beginning of brain development in utero?

A

Prosencephalon, mesencephalon, rhombencephalon

57
Q

What does the prosencephalon divide into?

A

In mammals, this divides to form the telencephalon (the cortex and the stereotypical brain) and the diencephalon (the thalamus and hypothalamus)

58
Q

what does the mesencephalon divide into?

A

This remains and becomes the midbrain

59
Q

what does the rhombencephalon divide into?

A

This divides to form the metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) and the myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)

60
Q

what comprises the telencephalon?

A

The cortex and the stereotypical brain

61
Q

what comprises the diencephalon?

A

the thalamus and hypothalamus

62
Q

what comprises the metencephalon?

A

pons and cerebellum

63
Q

what comprises the myelencephalon?

A

medulla oblongata

64
Q

what is the flowchart of the encephalons?

A

pro —> tel, di
mes –> mes
rhomb –>met, mye

65
Q

the brain develops as a hollow tube, what does the hollow tube then develop into?

A

the hollow tube then becomes the ventricles

66
Q

what are the ventricles filled with?

A

CSF

67
Q

Where are the lateral ventricles located? ( 1 and 2)

A

telencephalon
(right lateral and left lateral)

68
Q

where is the third ventricle?

A

midline of brain

69
Q

where is the fourth ventricle located?

A

between cerebellum and brainstem

70
Q

where does the ‘hollow tube’ of the brain extend?

A

all 4 ventricles and down the centre of the spinal cord

71
Q

the spinal cord is ___ matter surrounded by ___ matter

A

The spinal cord is gray matter surrounded by white matter

72
Q

Nerve roots branch from the cord to carry motor commands to the body (_______) and conduct sensory information into the central nervous system (posterior root)

A

anterior root
posterior root

73
Q

what is the Bell- Magendie law?

A

The principle that afferent neurons enter the spinal cord dorsally (from the back), whereas efferent neurons issue from the spinal cord ventrally (from the front).

74
Q

what are the names of the four segments of the spinal cord?

A

cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacral

75
Q

what is the purpose of dermatomes?

A

Dermatomes describe the region of the body surface innervated by each nerve

76
Q

describe the process of sensation and the transduction of impulses across spinal nerves

A
  1. fibers entering the posterior root bring sensory info from sensory receptors
  2. fibers leaving the anterior root carry motor info to the muscles
  3. collateral branches of sensory neurons may cross to the other side and influence motor neurons there
  4. white-matter fiber tracts carry info to and from the brain
77
Q

what are spinal reflexes?

A

Reflexes are basic behaviors that occur without cognitive input

78
Q

where are spinal reflexes generated?

A

Spinal reflexes are generated in the spinal cord based on posterior sensory input making a direct connection onto the anterior motor output pathways

79
Q

what can more complex spinal reflexes do?

A

More complex reflexes can integrate information across multiple spinal cord segments

80
Q

How many pairs of cranial nerves are there and what do they do?

A

Twelve pairs of nerves branch from the brain and brainstem to provide sensory and motor innervation to the head, similar to what the spinal nerves do for the body

81
Q

what types of nerves are the cranial nerves?

A

Some nerves are afferent (sensory), some are efferent (motor), and some are mixed

82
Q

how can clinicians utilize info of the 12 cranial nerves to help a patient?

A

diagnose issues with the nervous system

83
Q

what are the 12 cranial nerves?

A
  1. olfactory
  2. optic
  3. oculomotor
  4. trochlear
  5. trigeminal
  6. abducens
  7. facial
  8. auditory vestibular
  9. glossopharyngeal
  10. vagus
  11. spinal accessory
  12. hypoglossal
84
Q

in the sympathetic branch, where are the ganglia located?

A

close to the spinal cord

85
Q

in the parasympathetic branch, where are the ganglia located?

A

near the target organs

86
Q

what are the 3 distinct parts of the brainstem?

A

midbrain, medulla, pons

87
Q

where is the brainstem located?

A

Extends from where the spinal cord enters the skull to the forebrain

88
Q

what is the function of the cerebellum?

A

important for motor control and sensory integration

89
Q

what is the function of the pons?

A

connects cerebellum with the rest of the brain

90
Q

what is the function of the reticular formation in the brainstem?

A

Reticular formation spans the pons and medulla, and sends projects to the cortex to maintain alertness and arousal

91
Q

what are the anterior and posterior aspects of the midbrain?

A

tegmentum, tectum

92
Q

what is the tectum made up of?

A

superior and inferior colliculi

93
Q

what does the superior colliculi do?

A

relays visual information

94
Q

what does the inferior colliculi do?

A

relays auditory information

95
Q

where are the red nucleus and substantia nigra located?

A

tegmentum

96
Q

what are the nuclei in the tegmentum involved in?

A

Nuclei here are involved in motor control, including the substantia nigra and the red nucleus

97
Q

what surrounds the cerebral aqueduct and why is it important?

A

Surrounding the cerebral aqueduct is the periaqueductal gray matter, which is important for pain responses

98
Q

the diencephalon connects what to what?

A

Connects the brainstem to the brain

99
Q

what structures are part of the diencephalon?

A

thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

100
Q

what is the function of the hypothalamus?

A

Many nuclei influence a wide range of behaviors
Produces and releases many hormones that influence the entire body

101
Q

what is the function of the thalamus?

A

Almost all information destined for the cortex passes through the thalamus
Some nuclei relay sensory information to the cortex
Other nuclei relay information between cortical regions
Other nuclei relay information from the cortex to the brainstem

102
Q

what is the epithalamus?

A

Nuclei found posterior to the thalamus

103
Q

what are the main structures of the telencephalon?

A

neocortex, basal ganglia, limbic system

104
Q

what are the basal ganglia important for?

A

Basal ganglia are important for motor control and motor learning

105
Q

what is the limbic system important for?

A

Limbic system is important for spatial and emotional functions

106
Q

what is the basal ganglia made up of?

A

Includes the putamen, caudate nucleus, and globus pallidus

107
Q

where does associative learning take place?

A

Associative learning (stimulus–response pairing) takes place in the basal ganglia

108
Q

how does the basal ganglia work to produce fluid, skilled motions?

A

Integrates sensory and motor information to produce fluid, skilled movements

109
Q

what type of connections do the basal ganglia/cortex and basal ganglia/hindbrain have?

A

reciprocal connections

110
Q

how do we know about the reciprocal connections between the basal ganglia and the other areas of the brain?

A

from studies of diseases of motor control

111
Q

what type of movement is characteristic of Huntington disease?

A

excessive movement

112
Q

what type of movement is characteristic of Parkinsons’ disease?

A

loss of movement

113
Q

what part of the brain is representative of an older part of the brain from evolutionary history?

A

Limbic system

114
Q

where is the amygdala located, and what is its function?

A

Small nuclei in medial temporal lobes
Important in emotion and understanding emotion in others

115
Q

where is the hippocampus located, and what is its function?

A

Seahorse-shaped structure in medial temporal lobes
Important in personal memories and navigation

116
Q

where is the cingulate cortex located, and what is its function?

A

Arcs over the lateral ventricles
Involved in decision making and executive functions

117
Q

what is the neocortex?

A

-Outer layer of the forebrain
Only 1.5–3 mm thick and includes six layers of cells
Divided into two hemispheres by the longitudinal fissure
Four lobes have different functions

118
Q

in talking about brain structures, ridges are ___, while clefts are ____

A

gyri, sulci

119
Q

describe the concept of cortical organization

A

Different parts of the cortex serve different functions, and the inputs to and outputs from these areas can be mapped on the surface of the brain

120
Q

In terms of cortical organization, where do primary areas receive projections from?

A

Primary areas receive projections directly from sensory systems or project directly to muscles

121
Q

in terms of cortical organization, what are secondary areas?

A

Secondary areas are located near primary areas and do more elaborate processing of the information, interpret inputs or organize movements

122
Q

In terms of cortical organization, what are tertiary areas?

A

Tertiary areas integrate information across senses to coordinate cognitive functions and behaviors

123
Q

how many layers are the cells in the cortex divided into?

A

6

124
Q

which layer of the cortex is the outermost layer?

A

1

125
Q

which layer of the cortex is the inner most layer (next to white matter)?

A

6

126
Q

where does the first 1-3 layers of the cortex receive info from?

A

receives input from other cortical areas

127
Q

where does the 4th layer of the cortex primarily receive input from?

A

sensory systems

128
Q

what do layers 5 and 6 of the cortex do?

A

Layers V and VI send output to other brain areas or to the spinal cord for motor control

129
Q

what can be said about the relationship between how thick a cortical layer is and its function?

A

The function of a part of the cortex can be inferred by looking at the thickness of the different cortical layers

130
Q

how are cells organized in the neocortex?

A

there is a motor cortex and a sensory cortex, and each have 6 layers

131
Q

define Brodmann’s areas:

A

A Brodmann area is a region of the cerebral cortex, in the human or other primate brain, defined by its cytoarchitecture, or histological structure and organization of cells.

132
Q

what do cells within a column of the cortex relate to?

A

Cells within a column of the cortex relate to similar functions or represent the same part of the external world

133
Q

how do the columns of the neocortex differ from one another?

A

Columns differ in the types of cells they contain and the thickness of the layers

134
Q

what are cortical connections, and where can these connections form?

A

Long-range connections between cortical areas enable the coordination of high-level behaviors
Connections between different lobes
Connections from one part of a lobe to another
Connections between the two hemisphere
Connections through the thalamus

135
Q

Each hemisphere of the brain typically receives input from and sends output to the _______ side of the body

A

contralateral

136
Q

describe how the ‘crossed brain’ concept applies to the visual system

A

In the visual system, the information from both eyes is combined to represent the left visual field in the right occipital lobe of the brain and the right visual field in the left occipital lobe

Psych 377 (11 decks)

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