Motivation

Question 1

Motivation definition

Answer 1

Internal processes, such as your needs, thoughts, and emotions, that give your behaviour energy and direction

*Personal, cognitive, and environmental factors coexist to influence physical activity behaviour

Question 2

3 approaches to understanding motivation

Answer 2

Behavioural, cognitive, cognitive-behavioural

Question 3

Behavioural approach

Answer 3

An approach to understanding motivated behaviour that focuses on conditioning or learning from the environment.
1. Operant conditioning (reinforcement and punishment)
2. Vicarious conditioning (observed through others)
3. Operant strategies (self-monitoring, rewarding self)

Question 4

Cognitive approach

Answer 4

Emphasizes role of thoughts and cognitive habits. Our interpretation of the external environment (as opposed to the external environment itself) has a powerful influence on behaviour.

Teaches people to use rational thought, logic, and science to reform thought patterns

Question 5

Cognitive-behavioural approaches

Answer 5

Based on influence between cognitions and behaviour.

Based on 2 central tenets:
1. Our cognitions influence our emotions and behaviour.
2. Our behaviour can affect our thought patterns and emotions.

*Thoughts create feelings, feelings create behaviours, behaviours reinforce thoughts

Question 6

Trans-theoretical model (TM)- 5 stages

Answer 6

Framework to understand how individuals initiate and maintain/terminate regular physical activity. Involves 5 stages:

1. Pre-contemplation (individuals do not consider exercising in the next six months)
2. Contemplation (individuals seriously consider beginning exercise in the next six months)
3. Preparation (individuals have taken small steps toward becoming more physically active)
4. Action (individuals have begun exercising in the past six months)
5. Maintenance (individuals exercise and have done so for more than six months).

*people can change through stages, stage progression not necessarily linear

Question 7

Factors affecting stage progression

Answer 7

1. Self-Efficacy- Beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to produce specific outcomes.
2. Decisional balance- advantages and disadvantages of behavioural change.
3. Processes of change- strategies that individuals use to progress through the stages of change (experiential or cognitive processes, and behavioural processes)

Question 8

Research conclusions on TM

Answer 8

-Over half of people reported being in the maintenance stage.

-Being female, non-White, and having completed a lower level of education were generally associated with lower stages of change.

Question 9

Theory of planned behaviour (TPB)

Answer 9

Personal and social factors influencing intention to engage in a behaviour

*highest determinant of behaviour is intention

Question 10

TPB explained

Answer 10

Behavioural beliefs affect attitudes, normative beliefs affect subjective norms, control beliefs affect perceived behavioural control, all lead to and affect intention, which leads to behaviour

Question 11

Behavioural beliefs and attitude

Answer 11

Behavioural beliefs: Considerations of the consequences of engaging in a behaviour and evaluation of these consequences (affective; enjoyable/unenjoyable, instrumental; useful/useless

Attitude: Positive or negative evaluations of engaging in a behaviour

Question 12

Normative beliefs and subjective norms

Answer 12

Normative beliefs: Perceptions of the values and importance that significant others place on behavioural engagement (e.g. friends, family, health professionals influence)

Subjective norms: Perceived social pressures to perform a behaviour from personal or environmental sources (family, physicians, social media)

Question 13

Control beliefs and perceived behavioural control

Answer 13

Control beliefs: Perceived barriers and facilitators of engaging in a behaviour (e.g. lack of time, lack of energy, age, weather)

Perceived behavioural control: The extent to which behaviour is impeded or supported by personal and environmental barriers (intention)

Question 14

Intention

Answer 14

A person’s motivational readiness to perform a behaviour.

Question 15

Intention-behaviour gap

Answer 15

People do not always do what they intend to do

Question 16

Applications of TPB

Answer 16

Interventions should focus on individuals intention to exercise: increase attitude by increasing knowledge of exercise benefits, target subjective norms by eliciting support of others who participate, target perceived behavioural control through range of strategies

Question 17

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

Answer 17

The personal, behavioural, and environmental factors that influence behaviour.

*focus on self-efficacy beliefs, which serve as the foundation for human motivation, well-being and personal accomplishment

Question 18

Reciprocal Determinism

Answer 18

3 sets of influences- person, environment and behaviour- that all interact to influence one another.

Question 19

7 Constructs of SCT

Answer 19

(1) Observational Learning- behaviour learned and acquired by watching the actions and outcomes of others’ behaviours (e.g. video analysis)
(2) Goals- ambitions that direct people’s behaviour
(3) Outcome Expectations- reflect beliefs that a given behaviour will produce a specific outcome
(4) Outcome Expectancies- perceptions of how likely it is that a valuable outcome will follow a given behaviour
(5) Self Regulation- behaviour is self-directed and initiated, monitored and evaluated by the individual in a way that is consistent with accomplishing personal goals.
(6) Behavioural Capacity- behaviour is dependent on the individual’s knowledge and skills
(7) Self-Efficacy- belief in capabilities

Question 20

How to change self-efficacy beliefs/sources of self-efficacy (4)

Answer 20

1. Mastery Experience- past performance success and failure for similar behaviours influence self-efficacy
2. Vicarious Experience- modelled behaviours are associated with the development and change in self-efficacy
3. Social Persuasion- verbal and non-verbal feedback from significant, knowledgeable others
4. Physiological and Affective States- physical and emotional cues associated with performance and behaviour

Question 21

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

Answer 21

A global theory of human motivation and development.

Main concept is that humans have 3 universal psychological needs (competence, autonomy, relatedness) that when fulfilled increases behavioural regulation by more autonomous rather than controlled motives.

3 needs met= increased motivation and engagement= enhanced performance and well-being

Question 22

5 branches of SDT

Answer 22

1. Cognitive Evaluation Theory
2. Organismic Integration Theory
3. Basic Psychological Needs Theory
4. Goal Contents Theory
5. Causality Orientations Theory

Question 23

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Answer 23

Branch of SDT that specifies how various conditions shape the development of intrinsic motivation

Question 24

Organismic Integration Theory

Answer 24

Describes the extent to which behaviour is motivated by different extrinsic reasons that represent varying degrees of internalization.

Question 25

Basic Psychological Needs Theory

Answer 25

Concerned with the nature and function of psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness in relation to motivation, well-being, and behaviour change.

Question 26

Goal Contents Theory

Answer 26

Created to answer the question of what people strive to attain. I

Intrinsic goals, such as affiliation, personal growth, and health/fitness, are linked with psychological , enhanced effort, and well-being.

Extrinsic goals, such as appearance, wealth, or social status, opposes psychological need satisfaction and lowers well-being.

Question 27

Causality Orientations Theory

Answer 27

Uses personality-level constructs to describe individual differences in the degree to which people are autonomous as opposed to controlled in their overall functioning.

Question 28

SDT: Focus on Organismic Integration Theory

Answer 28

Proposal within OIT that motivation is best understood as a multidimensional concept that ranges along a continuum of self-determination. One end of continuum is amotivation (non-self-determined or controlled, other end is intrinsic regulation (self-determined or autonomous).

Question 29

SDT motivational continuum (6 levels)

Answer 29

1. Amotivation (no motivation)
2. External regulation (extrinsic- activities performed to fulfill an external demand, achieve an award or avoid punishment)
3. Introjected regulation (extrinsic- activity is engaged in to avoid negative emotions)
4. Identified regulation (extrinsic- activity is linked to personally important and valued goals)
5. Integrated regulation (extrinsic- activity is consistent with a person’s identity)
6. Intrinsic regulation (intrinsic- activity is undertaken because it is enjoyable, interesting, stimulating or rewarding)

Question 30

3 Psychological Needs

Answer 30

Competence- Feeling effective and capable when undertaking challenging tasks.

Autonomy- The feeling that one has choice and is in control of one’s behaviour.

Relatedness- Feeling meaningful connections with others in environments such as exercise.

Question 31

Achievement Goal Theory

Answer 31

A theory of motivation that focuses on differences in how individuals evaluate competence and define success and failure.

Comprised of task-goal orientation and ego-goal orientation

Question 32

Task goal vs. ego goal orientation

Answer 32

Task= focuses on past performances as origin of perceptions of competence, opportunities for personal growth and mastery

Ego= performance evaluations based on comparisons with others as the determinant of competence, success emanates from outperforming others.

Question 33

Developmental and situational factors affecting task vs. ego goal orientations

Answer 33

-Young children unable to distinguish between effort and ability before ages 12-13.
-Motivational climate influences achievement goal state.

–Emphasizing competition, winning, and social comparison evokes ego orientation
–Emphasizing mastery, effort, improvement, and cooperation evokes task orientation

Question 34

Goal profiling

Answer 34

Mixing both goal orientations.

Results in individuals being classified into one of four high-low combinations (i.e, high task/high ego, high task/low ego, low task/high ego, low task/low ego).

Research generally demonstrates that moderate-to-high task orientation in combination with similar levels of ego orientation can be beneficial, and having high ego combined with task is not detrimental.

Question 35

Dual-Process Models (conscious and non-conscious processes)

Answer 35

• Conscious Processes: Deliberate, slow, guided by beliefs and values, require cognitive processing, and are of limited capacity.
• Non-conscious processes: Operate quickly, without awareness, are based on feelings, and require minimal cognitive resources.

-When dual processes are working in tandem, people navigate effectively through their environment.
-Once conscious processes are repeatedly linked with a behaviour, non conscious processes emerge.
-When two behaviours compete, conscious and unconscious processes compete.

Question 36

Training cognitive structures (conscious vs. non-conscious)

Answer 36

Recommendation of cue interventions are designed to train cognitive structures.

–Examples: inclusion of implementation intentions (if-then statements) and mindfulness training