More complete Exam 2 material

Question 1

Discuss the Bodily sense stage of development

Answer 1

emerges during the second half of 1st year (around 6 months of age)
o infants experience sensations that come from the body
o ex: when infant bumps head on crib, he is learning the bodily self
o this bodily sense becomes the foundation of self-hood and remains with us forever (lifelong anchor for self-awareness)

Question 2

Discuss the self identity stage of sense of self

Answer 2

emerges between ages 1 and 2
o continuity of self over time that results because your memory starts to work
o because we are all changing over time, this feeling of continuity is essential
o aided by development of language skills
o gender identity also occurs during this time giving you a real sense of self

o importance of our own name: people who dislike their own first name generally don’t like themselves that much and sense of self is damaged

Question 3

Discuss the Ego enhancement stage of self development

Answer 3

emerges between ages 2 and 3; pride in your pursuits and accomplishments
o “let me, me do”
o can successfully manipulate environment

Question 4

Discuss the Ego extension stage of development

Answer 4

emerges between ages 3 and 4; kid is egocentric
o Santa is there to buy presents for them only
o Term “mine” becomes very important: do not want to share
o Argues that this phase establishes foundation of later ego-extensions→ by having a sense of “mine” at 3 and 4 you can extend that sense of self to something later that you enjoy

Question 5

Discuss the self image stage of self development

Answer 5

emerges at age 4-6
o when the child starts to become aware that parents, teachers, coaches, etc have expectations and perceptions for you; have hopes and aspirations for you
o child starts to compare actual behavior to these expectations to see if they are behaving well or behaving naughty
o serves as an accurate guide to strengths and weaknesses in the future

Question 6

Discuss the rational agent stage of self development

Answer 6

emerges at age 6-12
o self-image continues to develop at this time- still figuring out strengths/weaknesses
o but also the rational coper emerges- part of self that does not just solve problems but uses logic to figure out to behave
o Allport admitted that this rational coper is similar to concept of ego

Question 7

Discuss the propriate string stage of self development

Answer 7

occurs at adolescence
o individual continues to develop self-image but also have a renewed search for self-identity
o propriate striving means you are planning for the future by setting long-range goals (start getting good grades for college or get really good at hobbies)
o goals have to be more reasonable and narrowly focused and have to be in tune with your abilities

Question 8

Discuss the knower stage of self development

Answer 8

continues in adulthood
o where the adult is integrating all previous 7 aspects of self into unified whole

Question 9

What are the two kinds of needs

Answer 9

• 1. biological (primary): represent organism’s physical requirements—need for food, water, oxygen, etc
• 2. Psychological (secondary): arise indirectly from primary needs; concerned more with emotional satisfaction (need for power, achievement, affiliation with others)

Question 10

Describe needs

Answer 10

o needs are directive: meaning that they help determine which of many possible actions is going to occur at any given time
• directive in 2 different ways:
• 1. When you have a need, it is a need for something particular; referring to class of goal events
• 2. Specify whether to move towards a goal object or away from a goal object (ex: need for water, so you move towards it but fear of water so therefore you need to avoid it)
o needs are assessed by Thematic Apperception Test that he developed
• table in handouts**
• 20 different psychological needs
- Specific needs

Question 11

Describe the Need for achievment

Answer 11

i. Refers to a desire to do things well, to take pleasure in overcoming obstacles (to do things better)
ii. Have been studied for over 50 years and best known researcher= David McClelland
iii. Relationship to task difficulty:
1. Research has discovered that people who are low in need for achievement, you prefer tasks that are very easy or prefer tasks that are really difficult
2. People who are high in achievement, they prefer tasks with intermediate difficulty because they provide the most information (gives better feedback)
iv. Correlates

Question 12

Discuss Correlates for the nAch

Answer 12

• Positively related to persistence in the face of failure, related to grades in school, related to success in entrepreneur activities, drawn to careers with more potential risk and uncertainty

Question 13

Discuss McClellands reseach on the nAch

Answer 13

• Looked at time period btw 1925-1950 and examined 23 cultures around the world
• What he did is he coded achievement imagery from children’s schoolbooks (how much achievement imagery are the kids exposed to?)
• Compared achievement imagery to economic growth during this time
• Found a moderately strong association→ the more achievement imagery in textbooks→ more in culture→ better economic growth in that culture later
• But not vice versa*

Question 14

Discuss Achievement needs in women

Answer 14

• Most research only conducted on males
• Started in 70s and 80s that women were included in research
• Are there gender differences? → focus on different trajectories
• Research on men has focused mostly on business/ work
• Research has identified different achievement trajectories depending on whether the women value having a family or both having a family and having career goals
• For women who value both work and family, the need for achievement is related to getting good grades, finishing college before starting family
• Low achievement women→ may drop out of school to get married or to have kids
o Women’s need for achievement is seen in investment for activities focused on dating and courtship (may spend more time grooming, on physical appearance, spend more time at parties where they can meet future husband)

Question 15

Discuss gender differences in nAch and gender

Answer 15

even in a setting where women and men perform equally, the women are less likely to engage in direct competition and less likely to put themselves at risk for getting less money

Question 16

discuss the need for power (nPow)

Answer 16

• Refers to the motive to have an impact on other people, to influence others
• Desire to have prestige, position or influence over others
• Main researcher= David Winter

Question 17

Describe correlates with the need for power

Answer 17

• People who are high in the need for power tend to seek out positions of authority or influence; they also tend to form friendships with people who are not going to compete with them so people who are NOT power hungry; they are also more argumentative and want to convince other people of their point of view; they are also more likely to require prestige positions (high status item such as a sports car)

Question 18

Discuss correlates in Men with high nPower

Answer 18

• More likely to say that an ideal wife is someone who is dependent on them
• One study confirmed that these wives are more likely to not have careers of their own
• More likely to have physically abused their partners during arguments
• More correlates for high nPow men→ “profligate impulsive behaviors”
o More likely to engage in impulsive behaviors such as: Sexual exploitation of women, frequent sex partners, engage in sex at earlier age, alcohol abuse

Question 19

Winters theory of men with high nPow

Answer 19

o Do all men engage in these behaviors? NO
• Winters’ theory: two paths depending on if men acquired sense of responsibility to others:
• 1. High sense of responsibility generated by helping out with siblings or having own kids, the power motive leads to conscientiousness views of prestige (expressing need for power in appropriate ways)
• 2. Low sense of responsibility: being aggressive, taking advantage of people sexually, etc

Question 20

discuss the need for affiliation nAff

Answer 20

• Refers to the motive to spend time with other people

Question 21

What are the correlates to those who have high nAff

Answer 21

• Those who are high in need to affliation are more likely to conform to others opinions because they don’t want to be thought of as disagreeable; more likely to make concessions with negotiations; more likely to establish friendships and initiate contacts because they like spending time with people; spend more time in social engagements (similar to Horneys need for “moving towards others”)
o One study found that people nominated these people as leaders because they are more likely to engage with others
o One study found that couples that are happiest have similar needs for affiliation (wouldn’t make sense if wife is social butterfly but husband doesn’t want to leave house)

Question 22

Need for intimacy

Answer 22

• Refers to the desires to experience warm, close, and communicative exchange with another person
• In the extreme, it is the desire to merge yourself with another person

Question 23

Compare the need for intimacy with the need for affiliation

Answer 23

• The need for affiliation is really an active, striving, doing orientation to new relationships
• The need for intimacy is more passive, non-controlling, being orientation

Question 24

Correlates of the need for Intimacy nInt

Answer 24

• Researcher most associated with this need= Dan McAdams
• Those who are high in nInt have more one-on-one exchanges with other people, are involved in higher self-disclosure with friends, report doing more listening of friend’s concerns, spend more time during the day thinking about their relationships
• Need for intimacy may good for you
o Men report better marital and job satisfaction

Question 25

Define factor analysis

Answer 25

o Statistical procedure that reduces the number of relationships (correlations) to a more manageable number
o More complex version of method of correlation (instead of looking at just 2 variables you are looking at a number of variables)

Question 26

What are the steps of factor analysis

Answer 26

1. 1. Collect data (could be self-report info, ratings, observer codings, etc)
2. 2. Create a correlation matrix (correlate 1 with 2, 1 with 3, etc)
3. 3. Factor extraction: the patterns of correlations among variables are reduced to a smaller number of factors (computer does this for you)
4. 4. Determine factor loadings: correlations between factor that was just extracted and each item that contributes to factors existence (items that correlate strongly (> 0.4) with a factor are said to “load on” with the factor)
5. 5. Naming the factors: most subjective step in the whole process***; choose a label that reflects as closely as possible the content of the items

Question 27

Surface Traits

Answer 27

• Refers to groups of observations that are correlated
• Ex: people who score higher on IQ test tend to watch foreign films than people who have lower IQ tests
• Don’t explain anything
• Superficial associations
• Unstable, weaken/strengthen in response to different situations
• Surface traits are caused by one or more source traits

Question 28

• Source traits

Answer 28

• Single, stable, permanent elements which cause our behavior; the underlying determinants of personality
• Responsible for diversity or personality among us
• Can only be discovered by factor analysis
• 16 source traits
• Origin:
• Constitutional vs. environmental-mold traits
o Constitutional: biological origins
• High level of arousal vs low lvl of arousal
o Environmental-mold: environmental origins
• Influence of friends/family/work/society
• Ex: your degree of morality and what you value

Question 29

What are the three modalities of source traits

Answer 29

• Ability, temperament, and dynamic traits
• Ability: skills, intelligence
o How well we are able to accomplish things, work towards our goals
• Temperament: emotions and feelings
o How moody, irritable, excitable, easy going, and/or intense you are
o Natural? – most are biological/constitutional
• Dynamic – forces that underlie our motivations and drive our behavior
o Motivations/interests/etc…
o Ergs: greek ergon = work/energy (biological)
• Similar to instincts
• Anger or fear, hunger, sex
• How strong erg traits are varies from person to person
o Metaergs (environmental-mold)
• Sentiments → a general metaerg that is formed early and is long-lasting
• From the environment
• Attitudes → more specific in particular situations
• Not as stable as sentiments
• Subsidation→ refers to the pattern of interrelationships amng ergs, metaergs, sentiments
• Attitudes are secondary to sentiments, sentiments secondary to metaergs, etc…

Question 30

Describe the big 5

Answer 30

o Basic structure of personality consists of 5 traits
o Came up with 18,000 words, eventually narrowed down to 5
o Been around for 50 years, lots of attention in last 10
o Problem has been: what to name 5 factors (most subjective step again)?
o Costa and McCrae
• The same 5 factors emerge when looking at different methods of assessment
• No matter what you use: self-report, interviews, etc… you get the same 5 profiles
• Get a continuum between the factors, and how you fall on the 5 factors composes your personality

OCEAN

Question 31

Describe Opennes

Answer 31

• Insightful, artistic, intelligent, excited about new ideas, original thinkers, more imaginative, daring, high in tolerance of other people’s behavior, more susceptible to hypnosis
• Most controversial of the big 5 b/c it is very correlated with intelligence and cultural sophistication
• More likely evaluating intelligence/sophistication and not exactly openness
• Although Catells system has openness if you do additional factor analysis

Question 32

Describe conscientiosness

Answer 32

• Hardworking, ambitious, energetic, deliberate, precise, responsible, persevering, restrained, high on achievement-motive

Question 33

Describe Extraversion

Answer 33

• Sociable, likes parties, has many friends, enjoys change, impulsive optimistic, carefree, like to laugh, lost temper quickly (similar to factor A in Catells system)
• Scoring low: calculating, socially distant, emotionally controlled
• Extroverts: more popular, more sexual behavior, more risks, consume more alcohol

Question 34

Describe Agreeableness

Answer 34

• Cooperative, friendly, generous, sympathetic, altruistic, affectionate
• Scoring very high: needy and dependent people (not that healthy)
• Antagonism: rude, mistrustful, skeptical, cynical
• May be related to Isincks concept of psychoticism

Question 35

Describe Neuroticism

Answer 35

• Anxious, moody, tense, fearful, insecure
• High neuroticism: more susceptible to depression, greater reactions to stress
• Low: even tempered, calmed, don’t let things get to them
o Extroversion and neuroticism are factors most agreed upon by researchers

Question 36

NEO PI

Answer 36

o created to assess the personality factors but also the associated traits/ facets within each factor
o becoming one of the most widely used→ second to MMPI
o followed hundreds of subjects over a long period of time and assessed that personality factors persist over time→ stability of factors

Question 37

discuss some criticisms of the Big Five

Answer 37

o 1. Model explains the structure of personality but it doesn’t explain the operation of personality→ doesn’t explain influence of environment or genetics or whether you learned to be certain ways or if you are motivated to change
o 2. Model also does not predict differences between people and focuses on broad categories; broad focus makes it difficult to distinguish between subtle differences that may be important
o 3. Did researchers miss a factor? Researchers have suggested that there is a 6th factor that has been overlooked in previous analysis→ missing factor may be honestly or humility

Question 38

Discuss Sheldon’s theorys of body type and personality

Answer 38

o Premise: each person has an inherited biological structure, or physique, that determines one’s temperament
o Physique is called somatotype
• Still has consistency because of things like bone structure, etc…
• Does not fluctuate w/ weight

Question 39

• Endomorph

Answer 39

1. Tendency towards being plump or round, soft
2. More relaxed and easy going individuals
3. Have love of food and people, comfort, jolly

Question 40

• Mesomorph

Answer 40

a. Muscularity, hard and rectangular
i. Strong and resistant to injury
ii. Well suited for physical exertion
b. Bold and assertive
i. Action orientated
ii. More likely to be a risk taker
iii. Enjoy physical adventures

Question 41

• Ectomorph

Answer 41

a. Tendency towards thinness
i. More delicate, linear, frail
ii. Easily overwhelmed by external world, not well suited for physical work
b. More inhibited and shy, restrained and selfconscious
c. Prefer solitude and privacy

Question 42

What kind of traits can be assesed with the EPQ

Answer 42

o Extraversion – introversion (E)
• Ambiverts
• People who have medium degrees of extroversion
o Neuroticism – stability (N)
• Extroversion and neuroticism agreed upon by everybody
o Psychoticism - superego functioning (P)
• High P: hostile, cruel, insensitive, socially rude, avoid close relationships (aka: low agreeableness)
• More frequent in men than women
• Higher rates of P in prisoners than nonprisoners
• Correlated in engaging in high risk sexual practices
• Negatively correlated w/ religious beliefs

Question 43

• Importance of ARAS

Answer 43

a. Eysenck believed that the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) differs in introverts and extraverts
b. Excitatory and inhibitory neural mechanisms regulated by the ARAS
i. Balance between them determines some of personality
ii. Excitatory: causes awake, alert, aroused
iii. Inhibitory: opposite effects, drowsy
iv. Determines psychological arousal at given point
v. Regulated by ARAS
1. Each person’s ARAS functions differently
c. Hypothesis: a person whose ARAS causes him to be chronically over-aroused is an introvert, and vice versa

Question 44

Describe the fixed ration intermittent schedule

Answer 44

1. Number of responses that occur between one reinforced response and the next is constant
2. Paid after every 10 bags of fruit

Question 45

Describe the Variable interval intermittent schedule

Answer 45

• A given amount of time elapsed between reinforcements, but on an average
o Go fishing, get average of 1 fish per hour, but it is random timing

Question 46

describe the variable ratio scedule of reinforcement

Answer 46

• Requires given number of responses preformed before a response is reinforced, on the average
o Slot machine