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have to rehearse to go in to long term memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968
retrieving the trace
is like completing the fragment eg Pe** retrieval is recall
Damage to the Medial Temporal Lobes disrupts what
ability to consciously remember anything that happens after injury.
Left PFC stimulation at ~500ms after seeing a picture disrupted further recognition
Rossi et al., 2011
Gross & Barrett (2011)
situation- attention- appraisal- response. . can change apprisak of what think about sitauoon by using cognitive control over emotion
Stress reduces attention to irrelevant information
Booth and Sharma (2009)
➢ that amygdala damage can have distant consequences on what
on visual cortex function, selectively affecting emotional modulation.
Dot probe task:
The emotional pictures dot-probe task is a spatially oriented motivated attention task that is administered via computer to capture attentional bias toward emotional cues.
LeDoux (e.g. 1995
has proposed a dual-route for processing of threatening stimuli. slow, conscious, cortical versus fast, unconscious, subcortical.
. Loftus, et al., 1987
Eyewitnesses often fail to recognise crime perpetrator while still remembering lots of details of the weapon. Eye witness testimony is affected by stress, reconstruvctive memory, weapon focus and leading questions. In restaurant customer held gun or checkbook, less likely to identify person holding a gun
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
contradicts the importance of weapon focus in influencing eyewitness memory. Used real life robbery case. The misleading information had little effect on the witnesses. 10 out of 13 of them said there was no broken headlight or yellow quarter panel, or that they hadn’t noticed those particular details. Errors were still relatively rare and the accuracy remained high 5 or 5 months later-flashbulb memory? Only 13 participants
➢ Bower’s (1981)
network theory of emotion.
Emotion is a “node” in a network of associated semantic concepts.
Activation spreads throughout the network between related concepts.
Emotion nodes in network are activated by an internal or external cue, and when activity reaches above a threshold, the emotion is experienced.
Through links, other associated concepts and memories are also activated and consciously retrieved.
Eg loss, despair, unworthiness
Information is more easily encoded when congruent with current mood, because it can be linked with other, related information in active network (causing elaborative encoding).
Likewise, information is more easily retrieved when congruent with current mood, because activation of the emotion node spreads to related information such as memories.
Mood-state-dependent memory: memory should be best when the mood at retrieval matches mood at the time of encoding (without considering type of information).
The same schema that was active at the time of encoding needs to be activated at retrieval for successful remembering. Thus, reinstating a similar mood makes it more likely that encoded information will be retrieved.
Lazarus (e.g. 1982) appraisal theory
Emotional experience depends on our conscious or unconscious cognitive evaluation (appraisal) of a situation.
Situations are judged negative, positive or neutral based on their personal significance.
Appraisals also takes into account how to cope with situation.
Speisman et al., 1964).
➢ Participants saw anxiety-evoking film on an aboriginal initiation ceremony with mutilations
➢ The film was shown with three different audio tracks intended to manipulate emotional reactions:
➢ Trauma condition – emphasis on the mutilation and pain
➢ Intellectualisation condition – the track gave an objective anthropological viewpoint on the surgery
➢ Denial condition – boys were shown as happy and willing to participate at the ceremony
➢ Control – no audio
➢ Heart rate, galvanic skin response, blood pressure
➢ Subjective reports
➢ Participants in the Trauma condition showed higher physiological measures of stress than participants in the other conditions
➢ Suggests that it’s the individual interpretation of the event that affects emotional reaction rather than the event itself-supports appraisal thwory
➢ Meta-analysis of 43 emotion regulation studies (Ochsner, Silver & Buhle, 2012)
Blue boxes – areas involved in “top-down” control over emotional areas.
Pink box – emotion regions modulated by “top-down control.
Consistent with general role of PFC in control over other brain areas (cf. cognitive control lecture).
During re-appraisal, as PFC activation increases, amygdala activity decreases
Have cognitive biases with depression/anxiety
Attentional bias:
selective attention to threat-related stimuli presented at the same time as neutral stimuli.
Explicit memory bias
: the tendency to retrieve mostly negative or unpleasant rather than positive or neutral information on a test of memory involving conscious recollection.
implicit memory bias
the tendency to exhibit better performance for negative or threatening than for neutral or positive information on a memory test not involving conscious recollection (i.e. indirect test).
Beck (e.g. Beck & Clark, 1988) argue that
Some people develop excessively negative and irrational beliefs about world and self (‘schemas’) throughout childhood.
Life event triggers activation of these schemas, causing the negative emotions associated with depression
Some research suggests cognitive therapy is better than placebo, and approximately as effective as medication in moderate to severe depression (e.g. DeRubeis et al., 2005, JAMA Psychiatry).
difficult to verify that schema activation precedes and causes emotional problems.
Maybe emotional states bias cognitive processing, creating schema (feedback loop in model)?
Chronesthesia-
A hypothetical brain/mind ability or capacity, acquired by humans through evolution, that allows them to be constantly aware of the past and the future.
Goodwin et al. (1969
drunk/sober at learniung better recall
Morris et al 1977
Two processing tasks at study:
• Rhyme: Does the word rhyme with…
• Semantic: e.g. living/non-living?
• Two types of test:
• Old/new recognition test
• Rhyming test: e.g. Were you given a word that rhymes with…?
• Best at recalling semantic tasks for semantic and rhyme conditions, but more likely to rhyme correctly with rhyme initially
Evidence for transfer appropriate processing:
- cortical regions involved in perceiving and making sense of an event should be re-activated when rememering that even
- Sucessfully remembering visual memories activated visual association cortex, but remembering auditory memories activated auditory cortex (Wheeler et al., 2000
Ranganath et al. (2004)
Experimental design and behavioral results of testing for involvement of the hippocampus in information encoding.
The sequence of events in one scanning run. At encoding, subjects viewed a series of words and made either an animacy (animate versus not animate) or size (large versus small) judgment for each, depending on the color in which the word was shown (e.g., red font meant to perform a size judgment, so for the word NICKEL in green ink, the correct response would be “inanimate”). Later, in a test at retrieval after the scan session, subjects made two decisions about the items presented, which included the old items and new items never seen before. First, subjects were asked to indicate whether and how well (how confidently) they recognized the items (e.g., on a scale of 1 to 6, from definitely new to definitely old). Second, they had to make a source memory judgment (had it previously been presented in red or in green?) for each word.
Eldridge et al., 2000)
only “remember” responses activated the hippocampus
Retrieval induced forgetting paradigm
Anderson & Bjork, 1994).
Learn multiple category-exemplars.
Next, practice some exemplars from some categories.
Final test shows impaired memory for unpracticed exemplars in same category, but not exemplars in other categories.
Creation of false memories through semantic associations
Deese 1959 eg table, seat, soft… remember chair
- Controlled processes:
- Limited capacity, require attention, can be used flexibly in changing circumstances.
- Automatic processes:
- No capacity limitations, do not require attention, difficult to modify once learned.
Schneider & Schiffrin (1977)
choking” in sports might be due to excessive conscious monitoring
Beilock & Carr, 2001).
Shallice and Burgess (1991):
when automatic activation of behaviour would not be sufficient for optimal performance:
- When an incorrect response has been or is liable to be produced by routine patterns.
- When no routine procedure is available to produce an appropriate response.
dysexecutive syndrome
Patients with PFC damage show marked problems with cognitive control-dependent behaviours. Sometimes known as “dysexecutive syndrome”.
Stuss & Alexander (2007) – tests that measure “dysexecutive syndrome” are poorly correlated
describe a patient with damage to orbitofrontal cortex who thought he was a ‘space pirate’ in the initial period after brain damage…
Damasio et al. (1985)
Baddeley (2000)
Working memory model revised
‘Central executive’ that controls slave systems.
Norman & Shallice (1980, 1986)
- Perceptual inputs trigger schemas (learned sequences of behaviour).
- Competing schemas mutually inhibit each other.
- If a situation requires flexible behaviour, SAS is invoked and biases schemas.
- Closely linked with selective attention.
- Emphasises the role of control processes in top-down control over automatic processes.
- Links the SAS with frontal lobes and dysexecutive syndrome.
- Alan Baddeley (1993) has suggested that SAS roughly corresponds to Central Executive in working memory model.
Several PFC regions are correlated with fluid intelligence
. Duncan, 2010).
Rogers (1977
memory for self-referentially processed information.
Adjectives describing person characteristics, e.g. “suspicious”, “happy”, “intelligent”, “shy” more than semantic
suggests a domain-general control system.
Both WM model and SAS
remember info about self best, then best friend, the friend…
Self-reference effect is just due to enhanced level of processing
Self-reference effect is “special”, but inferences about others can be made by referring to knowledge about oneself
Keenan and ballet 1980
Philippi et al. (2012
- Lesions in AMPFC abolishes self-reference effect.
* Showing causal role of this region in enhancing memory for self-relevant info.
Beck and Levett (1994)
hear/see the word. Lexical stage: recognise it . conceptual stage: analyse word for its meaning
Collins & Loftus, 1975
spreading of semantic activation
