more

Question 1

have to rehearse to go in to long term memory

Answer 1

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968

Question 2

retrieving the trace

Answer 2

is like completing the fragment eg Pe** retrieval is recall

Question 3

Damage to the Medial Temporal Lobes disrupts what

Answer 3

ability to consciously remember anything that happens after injury.

Question 4

Left PFC stimulation at ~500ms after seeing a picture disrupted further recognition

Answer 4

Rossi et al., 2011

Question 5

Gross & Barrett (2011)

Answer 5

situation- attention- appraisal- response. . can change apprisak of what think about sitauoon by using cognitive control over emotion

Question 6

Stress reduces attention to irrelevant information

Answer 6

Booth and Sharma (2009)

Question 7

➢ that amygdala damage can have distant consequences on what

Answer 7

on visual cortex function, selectively affecting emotional modulation.

Question 8

Dot probe task:

Answer 8

The emotional pictures dot-probe task is a spatially oriented motivated attention task that is administered via computer to capture attentional bias toward emotional cues.

Question 9

LeDoux (e.g. 1995

Answer 9

has proposed a dual-route for processing of threatening stimuli. 
	slow, conscious, 
cortical 
	versus
	fast, unconscious, 
subcortical.

Question 10

. Loftus, et al., 1987

Answer 10

Eyewitnesses often fail to recognise crime perpetrator while still remembering lots of details of the weapon. Eye witness testimony is affected by stress, reconstruvctive memory, weapon focus and leading questions. In restaurant customer held gun or checkbook, less likely to identify person holding a gun

Question 11

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Answer 11

contradicts the importance of weapon focus in influencing eyewitness memory. Used real life robbery case. The misleading information had little effect on the witnesses. 10 out of 13 of them said there was no broken headlight or yellow quarter panel, or that they hadn’t noticed those particular details. Errors were still relatively rare and the accuracy remained high 5 or 5 months later-flashbulb memory? Only 13 participants

Question 12

➢ Bower’s (1981)

Answer 12

network theory of emotion.
 Emotion is a “node” in a network of associated semantic concepts.
 Activation spreads throughout the network between related concepts.
 Emotion nodes in network are activated by an internal or external cue, and when activity reaches above a threshold, the emotion is experienced.
 Through links, other associated concepts and memories are also activated and consciously retrieved.
 Eg loss, despair, unworthiness
 Information is more easily encoded when congruent with current mood, because it can be linked with other, related information in active network (causing elaborative encoding).
 Likewise, information is more easily retrieved when congruent with current mood, because activation of the emotion node spreads to related information such as memories.
 Mood-state-dependent memory: memory should be best when the mood at retrieval matches mood at the time of encoding (without considering type of information).
 The same schema that was active at the time of encoding needs to be activated at retrieval for successful remembering. Thus, reinstating a similar mood makes it more likely that encoded information will be retrieved.

Question 13

Lazarus (e.g. 1982) appraisal theory

Answer 13

 Emotional experience depends on our conscious or unconscious cognitive evaluation (appraisal) of a situation.
 Situations are judged negative, positive or neutral based on their personal significance.
 Appraisals also takes into account how to cope with situation.

Question 14

Speisman et al., 1964).

Answer 14

➢ Participants saw anxiety-evoking film on an aboriginal initiation ceremony with mutilations
➢ The film was shown with three different audio tracks intended to manipulate emotional reactions:
➢ Trauma condition – emphasis on the mutilation and pain
➢ Intellectualisation condition – the track gave an objective anthropological viewpoint on the surgery
➢ Denial condition – boys were shown as happy and willing to participate at the ceremony
➢ Control – no audio
➢ Heart rate, galvanic skin response, blood pressure
➢ Subjective reports
➢ Participants in the Trauma condition showed higher physiological measures of stress than participants in the other conditions
➢ Suggests that it’s the individual interpretation of the event that affects emotional reaction rather than the event itself-supports appraisal thwory

Question 15

➢ Meta-analysis of 43 emotion regulation studies (Ochsner, Silver & Buhle, 2012)

Answer 15

 Blue boxes – areas involved in “top-down” control over emotional areas.
 Pink box – emotion regions modulated by “top-down control.
 Consistent with general role of PFC in control over other brain areas (cf. cognitive control lecture).
 During re-appraisal, as PFC activation increases, amygdala activity decreases
 Have cognitive biases with depression/anxiety

Question 16

Attentional bias:

Answer 16

selective attention to threat-related stimuli presented at the same time as neutral stimuli.

Question 17

Explicit memory bias

Answer 17

: the tendency to retrieve mostly negative or unpleasant rather than positive or neutral information on a test of memory involving conscious recollection.

Question 18

implicit memory bias

Answer 18

the tendency to exhibit better performance for negative or threatening than for neutral or positive information on a memory test not involving conscious recollection (i.e. indirect test).

Question 19

Beck (e.g. Beck & Clark, 1988) argue that

Answer 19

 Some people develop excessively negative and irrational beliefs about world and self (‘schemas’) throughout childhood.
 Life event triggers activation of these schemas, causing the negative emotions associated with depression
 Some research suggests cognitive therapy is better than placebo, and approximately as effective as medication in moderate to severe depression (e.g. DeRubeis et al., 2005, JAMA Psychiatry).
 difficult to verify that schema activation precedes and causes emotional problems.
 Maybe emotional states bias cognitive processing, creating schema (feedback loop in model)?

Question 20

Chronesthesia-

Answer 20

A hypothetical brain/mind ability or capacity, acquired by humans through evolution, that allows them to be constantly aware of the past and the future.

Question 21

Goodwin et al. (1969

Answer 21

drunk/sober at learniung better recall

Question 22

Morris et al 1977

Answer 22

Two processing tasks at study:
• Rhyme: Does the word rhyme with…
• Semantic: e.g. living/non-living?
• Two types of test:
• Old/new recognition test
• Rhyming test: e.g. Were you given a word that rhymes with…?
• Best at recalling semantic tasks for semantic and rhyme conditions, but more likely to rhyme correctly with rhyme initially

Question 23

Evidence for transfer appropriate processing:

Answer 23

• cortical regions involved in perceiving and making sense of an event should be re-activated when rememering that even
• Sucessfully remembering visual memories activated visual association cortex, but remembering auditory memories activated auditory cortex (Wheeler et al., 2000

Question 24

 Ranganath et al. (2004)

Answer 24

Experimental design and behavioral results of testing for involvement of the hippocampus in information encoding.
The sequence of events in one scanning run. At encoding, subjects viewed a series of words and made either an animacy (animate versus not animate) or size (large versus small) judgment for each, depending on the color in which the word was shown (e.g., red font meant to perform a size judgment, so for the word NICKEL in green ink, the correct response would be “inanimate”). Later, in a test at retrieval after the scan session, subjects made two decisions about the items presented, which included the old items and new items never seen before. First, subjects were asked to indicate whether and how well (how confidently) they recognized the items (e.g., on a scale of 1 to 6, from definitely new to definitely old). Second, they had to make a source memory judgment (had it previously been presented in red or in green?) for each word.

Question 25

Eldridge et al., 2000)

Answer 25

only “remember” responses activated the hippocampus

Question 26

Retrieval induced forgetting paradigm

Answer 26

Anderson & Bjork, 1994).
Learn multiple category-exemplars.
Next, practice some exemplars from some categories.
Final test shows impaired memory for unpracticed exemplars in same category, but not exemplars in other categories.

Question 27

Creation of false memories through semantic associations

Answer 27

Deese 1959 eg table, seat, soft… remember chair

Question 28

• Controlled processes:
• Limited capacity, require attention, can be used flexibly in changing circumstances.
• Automatic processes:
• No capacity limitations, do not require attention, difficult to modify once learned.

Answer 28

 Schneider & Schiffrin (1977)

Question 29

choking” in sports might be due to excessive conscious monitoring

Answer 29

Beilock & Carr, 2001).

Question 30

Shallice and Burgess (1991):

Answer 30

when automatic activation of behaviour would not be sufficient for optimal performance:

1. When an incorrect response has been or is liable to be produced by routine patterns.
2. When no routine procedure is available to produce an appropriate response.

Question 31

dysexecutive syndrome

Answer 31

Patients with PFC damage show marked problems with cognitive control-dependent behaviours. Sometimes known as “dysexecutive syndrome”.
Stuss & Alexander (2007) – tests that measure “dysexecutive syndrome” are poorly correlated

Question 32

describe a patient with damage to orbitofrontal cortex who thought he was a ‘space pirate’ in the initial period after brain damage…

Answer 32

 Damasio et al. (1985)

Question 33

Baddeley (2000)

Answer 33

Working memory model revised

 ‘Central executive’ that controls slave systems.

Question 34

Norman & Shallice (1980, 1986)

Answer 34

• Perceptual inputs trigger schemas (learned sequences of behaviour).
• Competing schemas mutually inhibit each other.
• If a situation requires flexible behaviour, SAS is invoked and biases schemas.
• Closely linked with selective attention.
• Emphasises the role of control processes in top-down control over automatic processes.
• Links the SAS with frontal lobes and dysexecutive syndrome.
• Alan Baddeley (1993) has suggested that SAS roughly corresponds to Central Executive in working memory model.

Question 35

 Several PFC regions are correlated with fluid intelligence

Answer 35

. Duncan, 2010).

Question 36

Rogers (1977

Answer 36

memory for self-referentially processed information.

Adjectives describing person characteristics, e.g. “suspicious”, “happy”, “intelligent”, “shy” more than semantic

Question 37

suggests a domain-general control system.

Answer 37

Both WM model and SAS

Question 38

remember info about self best, then best friend, the friend…
Self-reference effect is just due to enhanced level of processing

Self-reference effect is “special”, but inferences about others can be made by referring to knowledge about oneself

Answer 38

Keenan and ballet 1980

Question 39

Philippi et al. (2012

Answer 39

• Lesions in AMPFC abolishes self-reference effect.

* Showing causal role of this region in enhancing memory for self-relevant info.

Question 40

Beck and Levett (1994)

Answer 40

hear/see the word. Lexical stage: recognise it . conceptual stage: analyse word for its meaning

Question 41

Collins & Loftus, 1975

Answer 41

spreading of semantic activation