Important Things Flashcards
When did they take an interest in mind and language
1950s
When did it become dominant
1970s
What is the mind computer metaphor?
Looking at human processes as internal processed including perception, attention, language, memory…
Meditational processes occur between stimulus and response (mental event)
Stimulus- mediational process- output behaviour
What is serial processing?
Only one process at a time, one process finishes when next one started
What is bottom up to processing?
Determined by environmental stimuli rather than prior knowledge/expectations
What’s top down processing?
Use previous knowledge to guide intake of information
What is experimental cognitive psychology?
Experiments on healthy individuals to shed light to our cognitive processes
What is cognitive neuroscience
Evidence from the brain to understand cognition
What is cognitive neuropsychology
Experiments on brain damaged patients
What is computational cognitive science?
Developing computational models to explain cognition
What are two forms of behaviour measured in experimental psych?
Reaction time between stimulus onset and response and accuracy (clues about content/capacity)
What is donders subtraction method
It contains three tasks
1 stimulus discrimination (GO-NOGO choice RT)
2 response selection
3 response executions
Two run go/nogo challenege, press A of orange present press b if nothing
Simple et press button whatever
Choice rt takes 800 ms, GO/NOGO takes 500ms, 200ms simple RT
What did Steinbeck 1966 argue
Argued parts of the task may not be performed in the same way new components are added
E.g. Mix up letters and colours change from parallel scan to exhaustive search
What is parallel/pop-out search
Visual scan stops when see requirrrd letter
What is exhaustive search?
Have to got to end of search to find the target letter
Episodic memory?
Ability to rapidly form durable conscious memories of experience
What is chronesthsia?
Hypothetical brain/mind ability/capacity which constantly allows them to be aware of the past and future
What is the hippocampus for
Important for keeping time
What is DM
Difference due to memory
How do you activate a dormant cue?
Need some memory input/a cue that overlaps with the memory
What are direct tasks?
Ask participants to recall previous experiences- cued recall, free recall
What are indirect tasks?
Measure change in behaviour due to experiences without reference to info source, e.g. Free association, skills learning task, fragmented stimuli identification and semantic judgements
What is the encoding specificity principle
By tulving and Thompson 1973. Provides general theoretical framework for understanding how contextual info affects memory. Memory is improved when info at coding is available at retrieval. E.g. Learn queen-bee if bee is tbere at retrib more likely to retrieve queen-bee
What is context reinstatement
Godwin et al 1969
Recall better in the same state as learnt drunk/sober
What did Craik and Lockhart 1972 create
Levels of processing theory. Deeper processing leads to better long term memory than more shallow processing Structural (looks)- shallow Phonetic-STM Semantic-deep However no objective measures
What did Craik and tulving 1975
LoP theory. Recognised later 16% of structural words compared to 89.5% of semantic wordd (is it written in captials/does the word fit in rhjs sentence
However artificial task
What are the two types of retrieval?
Familarity: assessment of memory strength of a particular item
Recollection: retrieval of contextual details associated with the item. When you remember info with the context e.g. What you talked about
What is dual processes
Familarity and recollection are independent
What are single processes
Familarity is a weak form of recollection
Where has to be activated to remember anything
Hippocampus
What did tulving and Pearson study 1966
Availability vs accessibility
Lots of memory vs not the correct memory cues. Stored memories are permenant but can t always access them? Can they ever become erased
What did coon 2009 do?
Found with no previous lists remembered 80% of words which halfed after 5 previous lists
If immediate recall remember 100% of stuff, after 20 mins 70% and after 2 days 28%
What did Nadel and land do 2000?
Reactivating memory and giving chemical impairs memory formation so can wipe memory.
Memories become more unstable when you activate it because chemicals may not out memory back
However tested on rats
What did desse 1959 do?
Can creare false memories through semantic associations e.g. Falsely remember chair if a list of words like table, sit, stool, soft…
What did Garry and loftus 1996?
Imagining different events increases participants confidence it ouccred. Why does imagination induce false memories
What did wagner et al 2005 do?
False memories for real and imagined events activate similar areas of the brain
What is loftus misinformation effect?
Loftus and palmer 1974
Watch video of car crash, how fast were they going when hit/smashed… in to each other
Did you see broken glass 32% yes if smashed 14% yes hit
Can overwrite original info with post event information or was original memory not stored
How many words do humans know and produce
70000 words and produce 40000
What are the building bloated of language?
26 letters in the alphabet, 40 units of phonemes…
What is semantic memory
Knowledge of what a word means at a conceptual level
What is working memory
Maintain content of sentences until comprehension is achieved
What is pragmatic language
Infer intended meaning beyond literal meaning of words/sentences and interpret ambiguities
What did Bock & Levelt ( 1994 do?
Conceptual stage: independent of lexical features (e.g. Dog and hound have the same meaning)
Lexical stage: contains the actual words of language and information on how they can be used in a sentence
Bottom up processing
Who produced a modular theory of language?
Fodor 1983. Language processing is made up of individual models e.g. Lexical/semantic… processing occurs in a serial fashion
Bottom-up processing
Name an interactive model of language
Mccelland and rumblehart 1981
Modules interact and info is used in parallel
Bottom up and top down
All interactions are interactive either activating/inhibitory
What factors affect recognition speed?
How common word is, length, age, spelling, frequency of use
What is segmentation
Often no gaps between words I scream va ice cream
Spectrograph shows gaps within words but none between words
What is corarticulatjin
The way a phoneme is produced depends on the phonemes following/processing it suit vs seat.
Easier to predict what is going to be said unless more unusual words
What did McGurk and macdonald do?
Voice someone saying ba, video saying ga, participants reported hearing da
What is the phoneme restoration effect?
Heard a sentence cough covers part of a word.
Report different words depending on context of the sentence e.g. The *eel was in the axle
Ps reported wheel
What is the uniqueness point of the word
The point the word is distguinsihef from all other words e.g. Candl… spag…
What is the cohort model?
Marlene Wilson and Tyler 1980
At the start lots of words light up, we hear more, words that don’t fit are inactivated until only one active
Top down processing
How are written words recognised?
Identify letter features, combine them to make units/ letters and then assess the meaning
Normally bottom up
What is word superiority effect?
Found single letters are easier to detect/remember when shown in a word rather than non/word/in isolation
Too down influences
What is a lexical decision task
Decide if a string of letters form a word/ non-word/ can look et priming. Reponse time to related words was much faster than non-related words showing words are already active
What did Kutas and hillyard 1990 do
ERPS show a neural correlate with semantic priming, peak is 400 ms earlier . The amount of N400 is correlated with amount of semantic info already Active
What did Atkinson and shiffrin 1968
Info in STM is transferred to LTM if info is rehearsed, otherwise it is forgotten through displacement/decay
But flash bulb memory
What is the different systems of memory?
Multiple systems: info can operate independently from all other systems . Different brain regoins perform different computations
One system: one memory system but multiple processes are operating in it to access content
Donamnesixa sbow an impairment in direct/indirect tasks
Direct tasks indirect they measure behaviour change due to experience
What did Milner 1970 do
Found amnesiac patients can’t consciously remember things but they can get better at perceptual identification
What did Milner 1963 do
Found although couldn’t consciously remember would get better at line drawing tasks. Slow gradual implicit learning
What did Schafer and Wagner 1999 do?
PET scans show overlap in coding and retrieval in the hippocampus. Especially in explicit memories
What did pallet and Wagner do?
Ask participants to learn then recall list of words and lookned at brain scans. Higher activity in left inferior prefrontal cortex response time approx 4s. Similar to medial temporal lobe
What does neuroimahing suggest on implicit tasks
Implicit processing can occur on direct tasks. Shoes they aren’t process pure
Is priming a sign of very weak explicit memory?
Where does priming occur?
It arises in neocortical regoins and conceptual processing of stimuli not the hippocampus
Contrasts with job activity increases for expelcit memory.
About Parkinson’s patients
Have basal ganglia damage, impaired procedural memory but intact explicit memory
Skills learning seems to depend on seperate brain eegoinnfrom explicit memory
Schneider and schriffin 1977
Controlled processes have limited capracity use and flexibility in changing circumstances. Automatic processes have no capacity limitations, don’t require attention difficult to modify once learnt
Automacity sailent stimuli attract attention, memories can be automatically activated meaning it can free up our limited attentional capacity for other things
What is choking?
Fail to perform skill in extremely stressful situation
Why is the PFC enlarged
To cope with more cognitive loads
What did baddely and hitch 1973 do
working memory model. Said about the central executive. Have crystallised knowledge(skills), fluid system is generating new ideas/learning things controlled by the central executive
3 part wm: phonological loop, visuospatisl sketchpad (holds visual info) and episodic buffer (integrates different types of processing
What did Norman and shallice 1980
Supervisory attention asystem (SAS)
Learning sequences of behaviour, perceptual inputs trigger schemas (sequence of behaviour) and competing schemas inhibit each other. Closely linked with selective attention. Links with the frontal lobe
Emphasises too down approach
What did baddeley 1993 say
Said SAS corresponds to centerak executive
What areas are are involved with facial processing?
PFA, and FFAB(fulisform face area) this is active in seeing images but not inndelsy period. PFC is involved with working memorie and doesn’t drop inndelsy between faces and response
Are wm and SAS domain general or soecific?
Domain general.
What do cohen et al 2000 do?
Two main processes of too-down control: Detection for need of control (LPFC) shows different activity for colours and words Control implementation (ACC) shows same activity for colours and words
What did miller and cohen 2001 do?
Some argue that the PFC influences posterior regions by amplifying selected responses
E.g. If choose coke over beer enhance coke which choose and reduce beer
What is a centersl goal?
Understand how we made inferences about each other’s states of minds
What is self referential cognition
Understanding others is linked with other understanding oneself
What is the self, self referential processing of
What did Cunningham et al 1996 do?
Is it referencing anyone or just the self? Remembered more about things referencing best friend over the friend… more elaborate knowledge of those closer to us
What simon-baron cohen et al 1985
Suggest social problems in autism stem from underlying problems inferring mental startes. Mindblindness can’t rely on own understanding
What did castellinet al do 2002?
Reduced activity in anterior MPFC in autism, but complex brain differences, can stimulate ASD by stimulating frontal area. E.g. Give slot more details on the horse when stimulation attend to smaller details
Who said vision is innate
Descartes
Who said visionnis learnt
Berkeley
How does perception arise?
Combine indivisible elements called sensory atoms that are coded in the retina. Direct response between the retina and conscious awareness. No recourse to internal mental representations based on introspection
What is bahabiiourism 1900s
Driven by environmental cues rather than internal mental orocesses. Perception doesn’t rely on cognitive processes/stored info of the world. Itnoccurs through passive resonance with incoming info. Environment- behaviour +sensory perceptions + beliefs…
What is the construvisit approach?
Cognition consists of an orderly series of stages of mentlnevents that actively reconstruct the retina input (detection of perceptual invariants e.g. Optic flow, texture ) mental processes
What is Gibson theory of direct perception 1966
Visual behaviour is based on detecting stable, unchanging aspects of the visual environment with the called perceptual invariants there are two types of these. One called optic flow (used to judge speed/direction) and texture (used to judge depth). stems from hookidticnapproach and can’t be inferred from looking at the parts. Conveyed implicitly by the light entering the eyes
How does the retina refract light
Like anorism. Newton (1672) discovered light can be spilt in to colours in different part of electromagnetic spectrum. Three types of cones are red blue and green
About the human retina
7 million fines and 125 million rods on the retina. Point all we’ve endings converge is called the blind spot/fovea
It is at the back of the eye to focus the depths, it is annout growth of the brain
There is high curvature in the fovea to soread out the image. Seoerate fovea for lateral and centerak stimuli to increase the sensitivity. Fewer blood vessels are in the retina so incoming light is less scattered meaning a clearer picture
What is the retina image made up of?
Gangilion layee, bipolar layer (amacrinenans horizontal cells) and photoreceptors (rods/cones)
Bipolar cells are only activate if both rods and cones are active. Horizontal cells help synchronise activity e.g. Like glis cells
Photoreceptors are sensitive to a v small area in visual field.
AP is transmitted to ganglion cells so optic nerve and the brain.
Topographical organisation
Some glow cells activated my motion and others in some directions
What are rods sensitive to
Motion, found around the periphery (outside the eye), low light vision
When are cones more active
Bright lights in the centre, more visual acuity
What are different pathways in the cortex
6 layers different functions:
Parvo wavelength (colour)
Parvo cellular pathway- APs can be quite slow.
What is magno cellular pathway: motion. Faster response, larger receptive cells
Parvo what pathway and mango where pathway
What are gelstalt principles?
Suggest the visual system heee a simple set of rules to decide what features to fit together and belong to the same object. Use introspection. Look at spatially corresponds. E.g. Similarity, proximity, common ground… smiths sum of The part is more than the whole
Who says everyone knows what attention is
William James
Who says no one know what attention is
Harold pashler
What is the spotlight of attention
Posner 1978
Attention can only be in one region at a time, only illuminated items influence awarenesss. Attention is a cognitive phenomen and not tied to eye mivements can be overt/covert, voluntary/involuntary attentional shifts. Small attentional aperture allows us to pick out the greater detail, wider resolution means lower spatial red
What did Erickson and st James 1968 say?
Attention is regarded as a zoom lens
How is attention moved between cue and target
Disengage from cue
Shift attention to the target
Engaged in the target
What did rafal and Robertson 1997 do
Patients with parietal damage had a problem disengaging in one stimulus and engaging in another
What does the thalamus damage do
Unable to disengage from one stimulus and become distracted other targets
What did egly driver and rafal do 1994
Following valid/invalid cue, subjects had to respond as soon as a dark square appeared in the target box. It was the same distance from in each cue. Same object was faster than between objects even though same distance
What can preattention do
Detect unconsciously stimuli might want to pay attention to. Presttention in oeriohal vision
Properties are light, colour, width, number
E.g. Visual pop out search
Where does the conjunction search activate
Superior parietal lobe
Associated with serial shifts of visual attention
What is the feature integration theory?
Treisman and gelade 1980
Visual system spilt in to two stages
1) visual pop out: evidence colour, orientation are automatically coded parallel across visual fields prior to attention. Form main building block building blocks of vision
2)difficulty of conjunction search is evidence that focused attention is needed to bind single features
What did treisman and Schmidt 1982 do
Predict if attnetion is needed for binding when attention is widely distributed when features are wrongly bound. Can’t bind the things together unless our conscious attention on it
What did Mack and rock 1998 do
Decided a paradigm in which made decisions in one spatial location awhile task irrelevant info was oresebted in another. Which arm of cords is longer, did you see anything else if no 60% failed to report the word and 47% could pick it off the list
What is visual neglect
Lesions, normally right side of the brain, cannot report/ acknowledge stimuli on the other side of the space. 50% stroke patients through some can gain it back. E.g. Symbol cancellation only right side cross through
Arewas of neglect: temporal, parietal, dorsotal frontal, polar medial frontal, medial temporal, thalamus and capsular striatal
What did marshall and Halligan 1988 do
Are the houses same or different? Patient said same, which one would you rather live in, subificantly say house without fire shows perception without awarebesss
What levels do recognition occur
1) perception recognition allows us to recognise objects from different angles/lighting when objects can be partially occluded
2) semantic recognition allows us to know the function of an object and recall associations made with it
What is apperceptive agnosia
Patients are unable to assemble individual attributes of objects, perception recognition is inapired
What is associative agnosia?
Patients can form object structure, but are unable to access stored knowledge about this. Can copy correctly but no idea what it is, semantic recognition is impaired
What is optic aphisia
Patients can allhrebd object structure and show semantic knowledge through mine and use but cannot name what it is, may look at recognition failure
What did patient AS do?
Disease from birth with calcium build up which caused recognition problems. 80 year old living indelendantly. Use shale info to pick up objects but couldn’t recognise them.
Occipital temporal lobe affected
Sensory, general knowledge, semantic knowledge intact
Can reach for objects but not make same perceptual judgements (angle)
Can’t see objects in the background. But can lick it up if you point it out
What is object recognjtion?
Know objects have a constant shape despite appearance changing or viewing angle
What are the routes to object consistency
1) template matching: rotate/manipulate object until fits with the stored memory, works well for distinctive objects but not similar
2) critical features: look for features unique to the object but hard when distinctive parts are obscured
3) structural discriptuons: before local features and relative positive ins to an internal frame of reference that can be seen across the viewpoint. Pick out aspects that are changing/unchanging
Mare and nishiharas 1978
Object theory of recognition
One property of an object that does not tend to change across the main axis. The ways axis relate to the main axis. Each object is a generalised cone
What’s the geon theory
Biederman 1987
In addition to axes info, other objects properties remain invariant across the viewpoint. These consist of wedges, spheres… collectively described as geons
What are the problem with the generalised cone theory
Main axis of the stimulus will be insured by overlapping object or viewpoints. Must be more to recognition than deriving axis based descriptions
1) how can tell difference if only differ in subtle ways
2) within category discrimination l: face recognition needs to be much more fine grained than for other objects
3) perception of curvature: computer simulations show facial perception is radically changed altering curvature
Abit patient RC
Wilkinson et al 2009
Unilateral right hemisphere stroke
Mable to recognise objects and photos but unable to recognise anyone by faces
What is pure object agnosia?
Patients are poor at recognising objects but relatively normal at recognising faces
Abit patient ck
Bilersterak brain damage
Pure object agnosia
Visual acuity intact
Able to recognise faces… can copy objects but not identify them
Where can face inversion effect be found
Animals too
What is damaged with Alzheimer’s
Hippocampus
